Psychological Testing Essay

Individual intelligence tests are of two types; Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test and Wechsler tests. They tests individual’s intelligence in arithmetic, vocabulary, comprehension, verbal amongst other disciplines. Individual tests are mostly used in education placement, clinical assessment and to measure an individual’s skills in the event a wide a large of individuals are being examined (Roid, 2003). Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test is used in testing children that are intellectually deficient in order to place them in the special education programmes. These tests are taken individually. Individual tests are characterized by several advantages; they make it possible for the examiner to interact with the examinee establishing a rapport in which the interaction can be observed and assessed. They also provide information on why some methods and tactics used to measure intelligence fail. Individual tests also make it possible for the examiner to assess a variety of abilities in examinees as it is not restricted. Individual tests provide a better way of assessing children are emotionally disturbed (Roid, 2003). These tests make it possible for assessments to be made on examinees that are in any physical or emotional condition such as tired, sick or anxious. Group intelligence tests involve assessing a series of many different problems in a mass of examinees. They are commonly used in schools and the military. They could be aptitude tests, scholastic assessment tests or tests of cognitive abilities. They are characterised by pen and paper, usually are time limited, involve almost nil examiner to examinee interaction are have multiple choices making them easy to score. They are normally used in school and job placements, and in the study of certain norms or phenomena in a population (Santrock, 2008). Group tests have the advantage of simplifying examiner’s role as they are quick and easy to administer. It is also possible to administer them on simultaneously to large numbers of examinees. Scoring in group tests is more objective as compared to individual tests. Group tests are often non-verbal (Santrock, 2008). Group tests give data that is more reliable as they make it possible for large numbers to be studied which provide good representative of the entire population, the resulting data and conclusion is therefore more reliable as it is more representative of the population than if the norms were being studied in an individual as is with individual tests. 7. The advantages and disadvantages of projective versus objective personality assessment methods Projective personality assessment method is a test that involves use of open-ended questions to examine the person being tested. Projective tests involve questions that are unstructured hence give the person being examined more freedom to respond in the appropriate way as compared to objective tests. These tests normally require the examinee to respond to stimuli that is ambiguous (Hilsenroth & Segal, 2004). It is based on the fact that people respond to stimuli that are ambiguous in ways that bring to light their feelings, desires and needs. The advantage of this method is that makes it possible for the psychologist to study and examine unconscious aspects of subject’s personality. These tests are not transparent hence create no opportunity for subjects to lie or fake their personality traits. The weakness of projective tests is that the collected information is not as reliable and viable as is needed. This is based on the fact that the psychologists that use the method assume that the subjects can not lie about their personality. Analysing data collected by this method can be time consuming and tiring as it needs the psychologist to go through it by himself. New technology such as computer scoring which is fast can not be used in this method (Hilsenroth & Segal, 2004). Objective personality assessment method involves the use of questions and items that are standardized, specific and clear in testing individuals under study. These tests are characterized by limited choice of the examinee’s responses. Most of the questions are designed such that they require yes or no, and true or false responses. Objective testing has several advantages. Objective methods fast to carry out. This is attributed to the fact that the answers required are directive and do not need the respondents to think or expand on the answers giving unnecessary details that waste time (Hilsenroth & Segal, 2004). This enables the data to be collected and analysed within a short time availing results within the required time. This method is also more economical as compared to the projective testing method. This because the questions are easy to prepare and the fact that all they need is yes or no responses implies that they do not require a lot of space. This saves on the cost of printing the questionnaire as less pages are required. The questions are also easy to answer making the researcher to collect the needed data very fast hence does not spend a lot of time in the field which saves money that would have been used on upkeep and transport. Objective test methods also make it possible for technology to be used such as computer scoring which is faster, less tiring and more efficient as compared to projective tests that require the researcher to go through the responses by himself in order to come up with the results ( Hilsenroth & Segal, 2004). . Like any other method, objective assessment methods also have disadvantages. These methods usually involve questions that are transparent which makes the individuals under study to know what the psychologists want to study in them. This makes them lie or forge answers. In the event the individual carrying out the test does not include lie scales which provide information to the researcher on the likelihood of the subject lying then wrong data is collected. This tests also characterized by collection of biased data as it provides opportunity for the subject to respond not the way things are but the way they wish things were. (Hilsenroth & Segal, 2004). The structure of the questions does not allow the subjects to add more information on their yes or no, true or false answers. This could cause the psychologist to miss out o9n vital information. 3. Some of the misconceptions concerning the differences between aptitude and achievement tests. Achievement tests are the common tests that are usually given out in classrooms and educational assessments. They are used to test what an individual can do or what they know. They are usually administered after some activity to test if individuals have grasped whatever was being taught. Examples are classroom quizzes, continuous assessment tests, driving tests, final examinations amongst others. Achievement tests in school are used to determine whether students understand what has been taught, which classes to place them, they are also used to rate schools and predict an individual’s success in certain disciplines in future if they are doing well. Aptitude tests usually are carried out to assess the mental abilities of individuals. These tests based on the concept that innate mental abilities of individuals can be measured. Aptitude tests are usually carried out to test student’s mental ability as they are believed to give a picture of how the student can perform academically. It is believed that those who pass the test qualify academically for what course they are applying for. Examples of aptitude test include SATs. Aptitude tests have been referred to as quality measurement on ones mental ability. However, critics of the concept argue that innate abilities can not be measured hence the test just like any other test is used to measure what an individual has been able to achieve by the time the test is being carried out. The results of this test hence demonstrate the individuals’ achievement in the subjects that were being tested on. This is true in spite of what the subject the questions are testing on. As such, aptitude tests are very much the same as achievement tests. The difference between the two tests however is in the assumption about individuals that take the two tests. With aptitude test, there is a misconception that there is equal opportunity to learn for everyone taking the test. It also is assumed that the interest of individuals taking aptitude test in learning is equal and also in demonstrating the learnt ability on the test. With achievement test it is assumed that the tests usually are based on instructions of a course or on some training that is not necessarily available to all the individuals taking the test. The misconception concerning the difference between the two tests therefore lies in the assumption that there is equal opportunity for passing in aptitude tests while achievement tests can only be passed by those who have access to the course or training instructions. 6. Information is presumably gathered by the typical projective technique Projective techniques are methods of assessing personality traits of individuals that use questions that are unstructured and not specific. The questions used in this technique are not transparent implying that the individuals being studied can not identify what the researcher or a psychologist is looking from them (Lilienfeld, Wood & Garb, 2001). Usually projective technique is used to study response of subjects to questions or situations that are ambiguous. It is perceived that the fact that these situations are not known to the subjects will enable them to respond appropriately without having to lie or change their personality. It is believed that individuals respond to ambiguous situations and questions in an honest way. Their response to these situations that they do not clearly understand brings out their true personality as it there is no opportunity for lie or personality to be altered or changed. Psychologists who use the method to collect information on personality argue that human being’s always respond to ambiguous stimuli in a way that brings out their personal needs, wants, wishes and desires (Lilienfeld, Wood & Garb, 2001). This technique is believed to make it possible for psychologists to assess the unconscious aspect of the individuals being studied character. As such, it provides no room for personality faking. Human beings are believed to have no control over the unconscious part of their psychology. The unconscious aspect of our psychology is believed to be what really defines us in terms of character. Psychologists argue that humans thought, actions hence character originate from their unconscious aspect of psychology. The fact that this technique enables the psychologist to study the subject’s unconscious aspect of personality has therefore been used in gathering personality information. This technique unlike the others makes it possible for individuals being studied to consciously give information that is biased and accurate. The notion that individuals are not restricted in responding to ambiguous has made this method to be used for collecting data on personality. 4. The reasons which dictate that an organization, whether industrial or governmental, to use valid selection procedures for hiring workers. There are several reasons as to why organizations use valid selection procedures for hiring employees. These procedures are useful in the several processes that involve hiring. In selection of employees to hire, the assessment tools that are used in valid selection procedures enable organizations to identify the best individuals for the job as they are able to identify the individual’s character traits that are required of the specific job. An assessment tool that is well properly developed will guide the recruitment team in selecting successful and suitable individuals for the particular occupation and position they are recruiting for. Valid selection procedures also eliminate cases of unfairness from arising making the whole process efficient and professional (Weiner & Graham, 2003). Valid selection procedures for hiring are important in job placement. They enable organizations’ management to assign employees to the right job responsibilities and levels. Assessment helps provide information that enables organizations to make the right decisions assigning of responsibilities which increase performance hence productivity of the organization. Valid assessment procedures are important in training and development of employees. The assessment enables an organization to determine which employee needs what training. The organization is able to know if its employees have mastered training procedures and materials that are vital for operation and running of the organization (Weiner & Graham, 2003). Assessments carried out enable the organization to design or make changes in training programmes so that the most needed ones are given priority. Assessment procedures also enable individual employees to identify their weaknesses hence can embark on self-development. This has positive results as it enables it to have employees that are skilful and well trained hence increasing productivity. Assessment procedures also play a great role in promotion or demotion of employees. The procedures enable the organization’s management to identify employees that have been improving in their performance and skills. Those who possess managerial characteristics or even higher capabilities are identified hence promoted to greater positions that have more responsibilities (Weiner & Graham, 2003). On the other hand, those who seem to making no progress or have decreasing performance are demoted as ant serious organization would not want to have employee especially those holding positions of great responsibility that are not performing. Valid assessment procedures provide a professional and fair way of carrying out promotions and demotions ensuring that the right employees are assigned to the right positions and responsibilities. Assessment procedures are also significant in career guidance and exploitation. These assessments help individuals make not only educational but career choices as well. The assessments make individuals identify the subjects they are good in hence accordingly choose careers that they will be successful in without have to strain their mental capability. The assessments procedures also enable organizations to carry out evaluation of programs. The organization is able to identify programs that benefit employees and those that do not so that it can stop wasting resources on irrelevant programs. Word Count: 2280. References Hilsenroth, M & Segal, D. (2004). Comprehensive Handbook of Psychological Assessment: Personality assessment / editors. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons. Lilienfeld, S. O. , Wood, J. N. , & Garb, H. N. (2001). The scientific status of projective techniques. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 1, 27-66. Roid, G. H. (2003). Stanford Binet Intelligence Scales 5th Edition: Examiner’s Manual. Riverside Publishing, Itaska, Illinois. Santrock, J. (2008). A Topical Approach to Life-Span Development (4th Ed. )Concept of Intelligence. New York: McGraw-Hill. Weiner, I. & Graham, J. (2003). Handbook of Psychology: Assessment psychology. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons.

Anti Hazing Law Essay

The given document regarding the anti-hazing law provides the possible penalties for the liable initiation rites or practice which purpose is to embarrass and humiliate the neophyte forcing him/her to menial, silly and foolish tasks and activities. Hazing, is only allowed for the Military clubs or organizations such as Armed forces of the Philippines, Philippine national Police, Philippine Military Academy or any form of army training in the Philippines that was approved by the agency head and hazing is not allowed for school organizations such as fraternities or sororities that prohibits physical violence. In my opinion, Hazing is the most appropriate prerequisite that had ever existed because it doesnt simply bring a benefit for the applicants/ neophytes and it only creates risks of injuries, discomfort, embarrassment, harassment, ridicule, forced consumption of alcohol, placing the individual into danger and even death and such negative consequences. The main reason why Hazers do hazing is that they need to feel powerful and in control yet hazing motivates no one; it even hinders academic achievements, destroys self-esteem and causes emotional and physical pains. It doesn’t have a purpose; it has nothing to do with trust or respect. Hazing was not even related to Greek letter organizations or athletics. It is just a foolish organization that are continued by foolish hazers traditionally as it turns to become epidemic and plague on campuses. Those members who are being hazed are more likely to haze others in the future and would continue yet it should not be tolerated. The only way to stop Hazing is to simple BREAK THE TRADITION and educate members who are responsible for Hazing to move on with their lives and focus more on academics, make people aware what hazing is and what penalties are and seek help from the government and help students develop to become moral citizens that will help rid our society of the negative consequences of hazing. To combat hazing, we should seek help and report such hazing activities to the Government.

Narrative Story †Alcohol Essay

Last night I had a weird dream that I picked up again. There were no sign of me wanting to quit. It was like I left off from where I stopped 8 months ago. But I had moved back to my family home in the dream and it was during that day when this dream started. I knew it wasn’t all real because my friend who so happened to be in my dream doesn’t actually drive and for some reason he was driving a yellow school bus†¦ Anyway, it was just me, my friend and another guy I’ve never seen. Its summer time and it’s a warm day out because we have the driver’s window open and we’re sweating a bit. So my friend is driving us up to a little town where we work and there’s only one grocery store up there. See more: how to start a narrative essay for college So we are on our way as we’re chatting about something and I don’t exactly copy everything my friend is saying, because I’m sort of staring out of the window sitting beside my friend which is in the driver’s seat. I believe my mind is occupied with whether I want to stop by the grocery and liquor store, so out of nowhere I shake my head out of my trance and said to my friend: – â€Å"Hey man, you’re going right by the grocery and liquor store right? He slowly nods his head and looks at me with his eyes glaring at me like he knew what I was thinking. – â€Å"Yeah, why?† He replies. -â€Å"It is none of your business!† I tell him. He starts to shake his head and is muttering something in disappointment. Within a few minutes he stops at a red light by the grocery and liquor store and I hop out and tell him to come get me within 20 minutes, and then he speeds away. I proudly start walking to the liquor store and start grabbing hard liquor bottles and some beers and I pay the Chinese man behind the counter with a big smile. I drank 3 beers and 2 liquor bottles within only  20 minutes, and as I start to get a bit drunk I walk over to where my friend dropped me off by the traffic lights and I see him just zoom on by and I’m yelling at him to stop. He keeps driving for another 10-20 seconds and with clumsy driving skills he pulls over to the left side of the road. I laughed a little bit and shake my head at his bad driving skills and I quickly walked over with all my bottles in my gray backpack and then he out of nowhere decides to drive away from me, again. I’m screaming at him to stop and the drives away again for about 20-30 seconds and then stops. And because I was in my dream I was not tired and I was able to keep up with the bus, and when he finally pulled over my friend and this other guy I don’t know jumped out of the bus and started to throw rocks at me! I’m yelling at them to stop and ask why they are trying to hurt me. After a short while they finally stop, I walk towards them and my friend starts screaming: -â€Å"Again? Really? I thought we already had this conversation, you promised me to never drink again! Think about your family and all the promises you’ve made! You shouldn’t be drinking, you almost died last time!† As I am trying to calm him down he just shoves me down to the ground again. I somehow try to get back up but my legs won’t move! He starts saying something like: -â€Å"I told you this day would come! Look at you now, you look awful and now you can’t even walk anymore because your body is too damaged from the alcohol intake!† And then I just woke up. All sweaty and shaky I realized it was all just a dream! It somehow felt so freaking real. And when I do think about when I was drinking a year ago, my life was like a dream. None of it seemed real, because I wasn’t living a real life. I kept on drinking all the time, promised myself and my family to stop drinking, but I never did†¦ I’d go to important meetings hung over and buzzed, just throwing my life and career away. I didn’t value life anymore. I felt I had no reason to live. I couldn’t stop drinking on my own, it was nearly impossible and I ended up in two different rehabs from September to December. A.A meetings and therapy is  a part of my past. I have 69 days sober today. Today, even though most days are way beyond shitty and my emotions somehow drown me, at moments I feel a genuine happiness that can’t be found in any pill or medication! I feel grateful that I can look at myself in the mirror and proudly say: â€Å"I’m not a bad person. I can’t change my past and no matter how dirty my past is, my future is absolutely spotless. I take it day by day and I do not drink no matter what. Addiction is what I had, not who I am.†

Engineering for Sustainable Development Coursework

Engineering for Sustainable Development - Coursework Example Reading through the guideline, an individual from a different profession is able to easily understand the various professional terms used within the engineering profession. The basic principles involved in engineering form the base for the guidelines provided within the document. Definition of the numerous terms, utilised within the profession of engineering, essentially assists involved individuals in understanding the various aspects of engineering. The provision of clear definitions for ambiguous terms offers an important feature for interested parties. The guideline could provide fundamental information to engineers and non-engineers concerning various aspects of engineering. People from different professions could gain important knowledge from the provision of the guideline. Aspiring engineers could essentially benefit from the provisions of the engineering guideline. Proper understanding of the professional requirements of engineers could improve the ability for aspiring engine ers to undertake their responsibilities. The aspiring engineers could increase their knowledge of the various engineering aspects. This knowledge could become essential once the aspirants become qualified engineers. Proper understanding of the various engineering aspects could essentially improve the qualification of the aspiring engineers. ... The provision could immensely assist engineers in developing environment friendly engineering projects. The guiding principles provide important information regarding the projects that could be initiated in engineering profession. These guidelines become critical in assisting engineers in developing projects that fit the description of sustainable. Development of projects following the guideline provisions remains essential in ensuring the success of the initiated projects. The successful implementation of engineering projects could enhance the general development of countries in general. The principles contained within the guideline provide definitions of a typical engineering project. Describing the typical engineering project could be essential in ensuring uniformity of implemented projects in different places. The implementation of engineering projects remains essential in initiating developments within different places in the country. The provisions of the guideline could also p lay a fundamental role in ensuring similar projects within the country remain uniform. Conformity with the regulations described in the engineering guideline could become essential in ensuring that, projects maintain uniformity. Such uniformity remains critical in enhancing development within different regions in a country. Implementation of different projects could be unified through following the provisions within the guideline document. The guidelines provided in the document could essentially be beneficial to different engineering associations in implementing sustainable projects. While the engineering profession contains several aspects and different engineering elements, the principles provided in the guideline cover the

Collaborative Problem Solving Model Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Collaborative Problem Solving Model - Essay Example In the thick of the problem students' work in groups, co-operate, and often act as professionals facing problems as they occur without suggesting any boundaries on the part of the teacher. Indeed the information they have may not be sufficient. However, with in the limitations they arrive at solutions, which are far more effective than the traditional teacher centered problem-solving approach. and peers than he/she can achieve by them self. Social interaction is beneficial for the growth of the child. It has also been confirmed by research that peer collaboration can facilitate better performance when one child is more advanced. In brief, the problem-solving ability can heighten when they work together. effectiveness of collaborative problem solving in certain situations. Studies on peer collaboration among school-aged children have sometimes questioned the benefit of collaboration under a certain age. Research has been somewhat inconclusive on this problem. It found that five year-olds were more likely to get involved in discussion and collaboration than 3 year-olds. Moreover, it was found that 5 to 6 year old children performed better, when they worked with a more competent partner than when they worked with a less competent partner. In fact, more research is called for to determine at what age collaborative sharing can be effective (Vermette, 1998). Application of collaborative problem solving can be done in the classroom in reference to an ecosystem. The ecosystem of the saltwater marsh is ideally suited for this study. Any ecosystem has four major components. First, there are the nonliving or abiotic components. The other three components are the living organisms. They are the producers, consumers, and decomposers. The goal of exercise is to develop a deeper understanding of the interdependence with ecosystems by examining how plants and animals are interdependent. The student should also develop enough knowledge about the marsh plants and animals. They should build sufficient vocabulary to explain scientific phenomenon in proper terms. In this study, the ultimate aim is to make a comparative study of the traditional method and the application of collaborative problem solving approach in teaching. For collaborative problem solving study, two standard methods are available, Student Teams-Achievement Division (STAD) and Jigsaw. A Jigsaw classroom method is preferred because it not only helps in collaborative problem solving, but also helps in narrowing down ethnic, cultural, and religious differences among the learners. In the Jigsaw approach, all the students have the opportunity to be a teacher,

Letter of reference Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Letter of reference - Essay Example Roses leadership. This was no faint praise and Mr. Rose should be very proud of his contribution to this program. At our university, Mr. Rose has shown his overall interest in developing our English program. In cooperation with the US Embassy, Seoul Korea, in October 2010, he arranged a sponsorship to financially fund the Fellowship program for a number of personnel from our university to attend the KOTESOL (Korean TESOL Seminar) held in Seoul, Korea. Bringing all of this together required a great deal of imagination, fortitude, and perseverance. Mr. Rose deserves all of the credit. In regards to office policies and interpersonal relationships with our staff, Mr. Rose has blended in quite well. He has demonstrated his ability to show respect for our office policies and his willingness to work in a cooperative manner. Mr. Rose works very well in team situations and has always developed a good rapport with peers, co-workers, and students. He clearly enjoys enjoys teamwork while simultaneously possessing the motivation and knowledge to work efficiently and independently on major projects in an independent manner. He works extremely well under pressure and has always been able to put his best forward and receive top results.   Mr. Rose is an excellent organizer and deals effectively both with technical people and with those to whom he reports. He is kind and gentle. Superior under stress, Mr. Rose actually appears to become more calm and more patient as stress escalates or conflicts emerge, making him an extremely valuable lead team member who can inspire excellent performance, ensure accountability, and build bridges even under duress. In short, I would consider any company or institution very lucky to have Mr. Rose join it, as he is virtually a shoo-in for creating the atmosphere and structure necessary to bring together a successful project. His qualities and work ethic underpin success. I

International Business(Singapore) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

International Business(Singapore) - Essay Example The country is also a regional hub for wealth management as it ensures that there is enough revenue for the purchase of raw material and natural resources which are not available in the country. In view of this, the case study analyses Singapore’s international trade, explain how globalisation has affected its economy and its culture and evaluates the factors that are affecting its international business through SWOT analysis. Since the 1960s, research has shown that Singapore has improved in its export and import sector of the economy. It has been ranked as the 15th largest importer and 14th largest exporter in the world. International trade has a great impact on Singapore’s economy. Singapore adoption of export-oriented industrialisation made it easy for the country to succeed in the international market. Additionally, they have few barriers to the importation and exportation of goods and services. That means that the country has few trade barriers. The country also trades with the Most Favoured Nation (MFN) (Hinkelman & Shippey, 2004, p. 93). There are zero tariff rates which apply to some of their products. Additionally, they have six lines for alcohol beverages making it one of the best exporters of alcohol beverage. However, there are different import restrictions because of environmental, health, and security concerns. It considers free trade as an important factor which facilitates the grow th of the nation. Primarily, the United States is one of the largest Singapore’s trading partners. United States influences Singapore’s international trade (Koh & Lin, 2004, p. 56). From the sale of the manufactured goods such as the computer peripherals and electronics, the country imports natural resources and agricultural products. Singapore has limited arable land, thus; it depends on the aggro-technology park. Additionally, the country relies on

The Experience in Working at Various Organizations Essay

The Experience in Working at Various Organizations - Essay Example I have grown up with the ideology that education and religion are two aspects that are very influential in life. Before joining college, I worked hard in order to raise enough finances to cater for my school fees. It was not simple since I had to work during the day and at night. Even though I am working hard to raise my school fees, I still require financial support in order to continue with my education without any difficulties. Sometimes even after the hard labour, I have to support my family as I save the rest. It reaches a moment where one feels exhausted and ready to surrender, but, Dr Packer’s quote, 'it is always too soon to quit† pops into my mind and I encourage myself to go on with the hard work. In my academic life, I have encountered many challenges and tribulations that nearly put me off, but I have this spirit of trying again. This is a driving force that has kept me going. Withal, my intentions are not to stop at the college level, but to attain a doctora l program, and this is the reason why I am applying for a scholarship. As an average student, I have been committed and dedicated to raising my performance in school, most offering voluntary services in my community. I also participate in various campaigns with important information about managerial development skills. Lately, I took part in the Hunger strike campaign which had an encouraging message of feeding the poor and bridging the gap between the poor and the rich. I was honoured to present a speech in Berkeley college where I emphasized the significance of applying classroom knowledge into real life situation.

Population environment debate Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Population environment debate - Essay Example Several researchers and theorists believe that the resources provided by the natural environment are decreasing and measures need to take place to counter the constant increase in population. Julian Lincoln Simon is against this notion and believes that resources are not becoming scarce and are being generated in abundance (Simon 578) . She believes that the increase in prices of resources provides individuals such as farmers and manufacturers to produce more and to create new discoveries and participate in the act of recycling which results in the creation of substitute goods. This means that resources are not becoming scarce; instead they are being replaced with substitutes which counter the issue of shortage created due to increase in population. Researchers such as Ben Wattenberg state that population growth has negatively impacted the environment but now the growth rate is declining and will eventually come to an end (Wattenberg, 2012). Due to this he believes that the problem of shortage of environmental resources will be countered and there will be enough resources for human beings. According to him the population growth of certain developed nations such as Europe has come to a stand still and the population growth of areas such as Asian nations have declined drastically. In response to Wattenberg, Kenneth Hill states that although population growth rate has declined, still the boom in population is not over and will continue to rise (Slate Magazine, 2012). Hill points out various issues in calculating the population rate and points out that several people are not even counted among the population of a nation. Hill sates that problems such as increase in rate of immigration and decrease in the rate of infant mortality an d increase in the number of old aged people is an alarming point for US. One of the major elements in the debate of population and environment is that those

Microbiology and biotechnology Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Microbiology and biotechnology - Assignment Example This is to produce drug intermediates and produce vaccines or the drugs themselves (Baker, Nicklin and Griffiths, 2011). One application of gene therapy in medicine has been in treatment of type I diabetes. In the treatment, the researchers have used adenovirus as a vector to enable them delivers the gene for hepatocyte growth factor. Another application of gene therapy is in treatment of x-linked severe combined immunodeficiency (Baltz, Davies and Demain, 2010). This is a disease common in babies where they lack both T and B cells of the immune system and they are mainly exposed to infections. The applications are through non-viral vectors being tested for the gene therapy uses. The application include receptor on the goal cell, artificial chromosomes and naked DNA that is not linked to another molecule at all and can be directly injected into the cell (Baltz, Davies and Demain, 2010). Crude oil and its products are non-renewable and are considered to one day come to an end. Biofuel has been used as a replacement of crude oil as the source is renewable and produced from biomass. The approach that has been used to eliminate the use of crude oil is on the effects on the environment and the costs of the use (El-Mansi and Bryce, 2007). The approach is that biofuels may be easy to market than crude oil with consideration of performance, infrastructure and other factors. The other reasons for the approach are that biofuels play an important role in climate change and the important increase in production and use (El-Mansi and Bryce, 2007). Biotechnology has resulted to several advantages such as reduction in the costs of agriculture production as those in the sector are able to use fewer pesticides and herbicides in protecting their crops. The improved varieties are also able to increase the yield in a short duration. Increase food production has also been observed through the use of the method. There has also been ability to produce food in even times

Poetry Analysis the famous blue raincoat by leonard cohen Essay

Poetry Analysis the famous blue raincoat by leonard cohen - Essay Example The title refers to the unnamed person’s raincoat. This becomes an important symbol in the song. The tearing at the shoulder of the raincoat suggests the passage of time, vulnerability, and also the inability perhaps to â€Å"shoulder† responsibilities like fidelity. Maurice Ratcliff in The Complete Guide to the Music of Leonard Cohen suggests that since Cohen has admitted that the title refers to a â€Å"Burberry† raincoat he owned himself, perhaps the letter is addressed to his own past self (Ratcliff 37). The interpretation of the other being Cohen himself is possible and suggests that writing or singing the letter is a kind of therapeutic act to redeem his own perhaps unjust behavior towards Jane. The form of the poem is roughly in the AABB rhyming scheme with minor variations. For instance, in the stanza following â€Å"Well I see Jane’s awake†, the rhyming scheme shifts to ABCB temporarily. There are also devices to indicate the epistolary nat ure of the poem: â€Å"Sincerely, L. Cohen† at the end and the vague mention of the date and time at the beginning, for instance. Most of the song appears to fall in the metrical pattern of amphibrach, although this varies also. The content of this popular song is obscure and open to interpretation.

What the future may hold Essay Example for Free

What the future may hold Essay Law enforcement is heading for uncharted waters. Beyond deals with criminal activity and enforcing state statutes, law enforcement personnel are at the time of this writing in the throes of war with Ð ° frontline that has no defined latitude or longitude. The enemy is often faceless and leaderless. What will the future hold? Although no one person or group can predict the future; one certainty is that technology will be at the forefront. Another certainty is that international and domestic terrorist groups are here to stay, but they will no longer be treated as two distinct factions. There are no boundaries with terrorists or organized hate groups. Law enforcement has embarked on Ð ° new frontier that cannot be disregarded and appears to be endless. Times have changed and so must law enforcement. Chances are that the greatest terrorist impact wills come from technology or science, such as cyber- or bioterrorism, rather than from conventional bombs. No matter what the source of the impact is, agencies are cautioned against Ð ° simplistic approach. History has demonstrated that most terrorist attacks are events that are planned, often over the course of months and years. Therefore, we must use extreme caution when gathering information and must avoid overlooking any seemingly harmless aspect of situations or events presented. The smallest, seemingly meaningless, communication, transmission, purchase, or inquiry could be the missing component that links events. Agencies should take this information into account as well as all the categories mentioned in previous chapters when developing their database structures. Relegating minor items to Ð ° â€Å"comments† section or omitting them altogether may have adverse effects in the future. Also, database managers should include information on the various forms of terrorism, especially cyber and biological. â€Å"To fully appreciate the implications of terrorism today, it is appropriate to review and assess terrorism within the context of history. Grant Wardlaw argues that â€Å"Part of the solution to the question of whether or not contemporary terrorism poses Ð ° unique threat to social order lies in an appraisal of its degree of continuity with previous manifestations of political terrorism. † It is not possible in this study to produce Ð ° complete history of terrorism. However, in order to place contemporary terrorist activities in Ð ° proper perspective, it is germane to identify some of the major historical bench-marks of terrorism. † (Paul 2002 11)

Strategy of Channelization in River Systems

Strategy of Channelization in River Systems The purpose of this essay is to analyze the strategy of channelization in river systems in order to reduce flooding, and other purposes such as navigation. Also the importance of channel forms and the value of the systems approach are evaluated within this essay when considering the pros and cons of restoration activities and whether these schemes are beneficial to the environment. Overall this essay will look at the environmental degradation caused by channelization and determine whether channelization is the most beneficial strategy in reducing flooding or are there alternatives that lead to less environmental degradation. Channel forms: Channel forms help humans comprehend the behaviour of rivers. This is vital as one can foresee how rivers may be affected by various changes and restoration schemes. Thus, the ability to protect and restore river health is enhanced. Channel forms are regulated by convoluted interactions between profuse environmental variables. This is why the systems approach is a useful method when analysing channel systems, as it does not just look at one variable but all of the linked variables involved. Even with this system shaping channel forms is highly dependent on geology; directly and indirectly over a prolonged period. Human interactions have also had an impact on the change of channel form for instance channelization (Water and river commissions, 2002). Channelization and its implementation: Human interaction with river systems is both the reason why channelization was implemented for example as a result of flooding and the cause of environmental degradation of the river systems. Humans interact with river systems in many ways and have impacted flooding of river channels due to increased population pressure, which has put a growing demand on water supply systems leading to environmental degradation. Deforestation around river channels have also increased flooding as deforestation impacts the interaction between precipitation and the drainage basin response. Due to increased awareness of river behaviour and dynamics new strategies were implemented and overtime humans modernised engineering structures and built broad structures to control and regulate river flows, such as channelization. Channelization according to Brookes is a type of â€Å"river engineering whereby the natural river channels are modified to control flooding, drain wetlands, and improve river channels for navigation, control stream-bank erosion and to improve river alignment† (Brookes, 1988). River channelization has seven types of alterations (Gregory, 2006). These are â€Å"(1) re-sectioning and realignment, (2) Dredging, (3) Snagging and clearing, (4) Levees or artificial embankments, (5) Bank protection, (6) Bed protection and (7) River training† (Charlton, 2008). An example where these alterations have been implemented is during the channelization of the River Raba in Carpathians, Poland (Wyzga, 1993). However, these engineering structures tend to have a large impact on river and the natural ecology and hydrology of the channel system. For years humans have interacted with channels and altered the natural geology of the systems and thus have lead to severe impacts on the â€Å"physical, chemical and ecological condition of the channel systems† (Brookes, 1988). The impacts of channelization usually involve the alteration of river hydraulics and the decrease of instream habitat. Other impacts discovered as a result of these alterations include increased water temp, erosion, elimination of bankside habitat. These impacts can cause severe environmental degradation (Gregory, 2006). Environmental degradation: The deterioration of systems within the environment by either natural or human influence is considered environmental degradation and as channelization alters the natural river system it leads to extreme environmental degradation. Impacts on the environment associated with human interference are usually quite complex and are mostly long term effects. Nevertheless, few studies have been conducted on the long term effects of channelization (Brooker, 1985). Swales (1982a) however inspected several environmental effects on channel engineering systems, in particular the impact on stream habitat and discovered that channelization has a major impact on instream and bankside habitat (Brooker, 1985), as well as the hydrology, aspects of flow and suspended sediment within river systems (Wilcock, 1991). Effects of channelization can also occur downstream in a channel system which broadens the extent of ecological disturbance (Brooker, 1985). The increase of flow velocity and its carrying capacity as a result of shortening and straightening the channels has an immediate ecological effect on instream habitat as many ecosystems need particular conditions in terms water velocity (Gore, 1978). This destruction within the channel systems leads to erosion of bankside vegetation which increases sediment loads in the channel (Keller, 1976; Karr and Schlosser, 1978). Sediment loads in channel systems are usually low (Lewin, 1981), however, in channelized rivers se the loads are increased as bed/channel wall sediments are scraped up. This release of sediment has major effects on the ecology of the river (Wilcock, 1991) as removal of bankside vegetation leads to temp changes and in results affects the ecosystem as well as reducing energy flow (Brooker, 1985). In some cases channel slopes have also seen as increase whilst channel roughness is seen to reduce. An example of environmental degradation was shown in Gregory (2006) which involved the Channelization of the Blackwater River in Johnson County, Missouri. This channel was shortened in 1910 in order to reduce flooding by deepening and widening the channel by â€Å"up to four times its original size† (Emerson, 1971). This subsequent lowering and increase of channel width lead to increased erosion in the river system, also bridge repairs have had to be carried out and there has been a severe loss of farmland. â€Å"Downstream reduction in channel capacity has caused suspended sediment in turn increased flooding rather than reducing it due to termination of dredging† (Emerson, 1971). Alternatives: Channelization was initially implemented to straighten and shorten river channels to reduce flooding. It was also implemented to decrease flow velocity and prevent flooding, however, this lead to environmental degradation which resulted in the depletion of instream habitats and depleted drainage function. As channelization has had problems leading to environmental degradation, alternative channel schemes have been developed to enhance water quality functions whilst preserving drainage function and lessening environmental degradation (Evans, Bass, Burchell, Hinson, Johnson and Doxey, 2007). There are many alternatives to channelization that environmentalists could install; one such method is stream renovation which has been implemented on â€Å"streams in Charlotte, North Carolina† (Nunnally, 1978). Unlike channelization stream restoration aims to decrease the risk of flooding and drainage problems â€Å"by employing channel design guidelines that do not destroy the hydraulic and morphologic equilibria that natural streams possess† (Nunnally, 1978). Minimal straightening which promotes bank stability by leaving trees is employed in this scheme. Also the reduction of channel reshaping and the use of bank stabilization techniques are used here to reduce flooding and control erosion as well as sedimentation problems (Nunnally, 1879). Other alternatives involve the formation of in-stream wetlands and â€Å"lowering of the floodplain to reconnect the channel with the floodplain, redesign of channels using natural channel design principles, and establishment of conservation easements† (Evans, Bass, Burchell, Hinson, Johnson and Doxey, 2007). Restoration: Recognising channel forms and understanding how they behave and change is crucial for managing and protecting channel systems, especially for river restoration activities. Due to severe environmental degradation restoration schemes have been implemented. Though, it is not known whether these schemes are beneficial. Restoration activities generally improve bank stabilization (Florsheim, Mount, and Chin, 2008) and have positively increased depth and flow variety and velocity as well as increasing habitat diversity in channel systems (Pretty, Harrison, Shepherd, Smith, Hildrew and Hey, 2003). Other benefits include the protection of infrastructure around river channels, and in relation to instream habitat it guarantees overall ecological system. Restoration schemes allow the natural process in the channel systems to redevelop and surrounding landscapes to restore. Restoration schemes are constructive in counteracting the environmental degradation caused by channelization; yet there are a few cons. For instance natural processes may not necessarily be enhanced. Also a clear understanding of channel process is important in implementing these schemes, as they may sacrifice natural conditions in order to protect infrastructure. Restoration schemes are extremely expensive and very complicated therefore it is generally impossible to remove all human influences meaning restoration may not lead to higher biological diversity. Channelization is commonly used to prevent flooding of channel systems; however, it has been found that the adverse impacts created by channelization projects far outweigh the benefits they intend to create. It is for this reason that alternative strategies are being developed so that in the long run creates less environmental degradation. The use of the systems approach is important as the use of all variables regulated by channel forms is necessary in making the new strategies environmentally acceptable. Also increased knowledge of channel systems and its dynamics have helped better restoration schemes and thus leading to the recuperation of many already channelized systems.

Human Resource Outsourcing in the UK

Human Resource Outsourcing in the UK HUMAN RESOURCE OUTSOURCING: A GENERAL STUDY OF UNITED KINGDOM RETAILERS’ USE OF OUTSOURCED PERSONNEL, REASONS AND BENEFITS. ABSTRACT: Human Resource outsourcing is considered an important factor in today’s business world. It is constantly growing, especially in the global world where companies outsource not just within their country but across borders. This research concentrates on Human Resource outsourcing in the retail sector, including both small and medium size firms in the United Kingdom. The ultimate aim of this research is outlined below: To find out why companies outsource their Human Resource – their first and foremost reasons. To find out what benefits there are in this process. To find out if there are any control mechanisms linked to the process. To find answers to these questions, five retail managers were interviewed: three respondents interviewed were conducted face to face and two were phoned interviewed. Again, fifty questionnaires were sent out to recruitment agencies who are the suppliers of the Human Resource, to confirm if they share the same opinion with retail managers who are their clients. Out of the fifty questionnaires, 30 were retrieved and analysed. The results revealed that companies do not outsource all of their Human Resource functions. Recruitment is the key function outsourced for the simple reason of convenience and time saving. However, benefits are enormous including cost effectiveness, achieving higher core competency levels, greater flexibility and accessibility to expertise, reducing workload of staff etc. Results also depict two categories of outsourced staff, which are temporary staff and permanent staff with temporary staff being the majority. CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1There have been many issues surrounding outsourcing of Human Resource. It implications are wide and varied. Though there are many benefits, it is faced with challenges as well. Companies who have managed their challenges well have been successful others on the other hand have redrawn from the process. The topic was chosen because is an issue being discussed currently all over the globe and the retail sector is proving to be a sector that employs a greater percentage of the workforce. Chapter one gives a definition of outsourcing and discusses what outsourcing is all about. It gives relevant examples of those companies practicing Human Resource outsourcing and the results of their practice. Chapter two is the literature review. The literature review establishes concise framework and reveals various reasons why companies tend to outsource and its subsequent benefits. It also raises the issues of concern and the control outsourcers have over their suppliers. It discusses people’s opinion about the Human Resource outsourcing giving the pros and cons of the issue. Part two of chapter two gives the factors that drives the process Chapter three is basically about the retail sector and how it operates in the United Kingdom analysing the importance of the Human Resource in retailing. How data was collected is discussed in chapter four and further analysed. Finally findings are reported and conclusion with limitations given in the last chapter. 1.2Background of study Outsourcing has been defined by Gupta and Gupta (1992) as ‘the concept of hiring outside professional services to meet the in-house needs of an organisation or agency’ another explanation is a managerial approach delegating non-core functions of the organisation to other specialist and efficient services providers. In recent times, many companies are considering outsourcing their Human Resource because it is becoming a viable option. In the United Kingdom (UNITED KINGDOM), the situation has been drastic, especially in the retail sector. Human Resource indeed is one of the major factors of production and cannot be ignored in anyway for a business success. Human Resource is constantly growing and keeping abreast with the dynamic business world, which relies heavily on the technology advancement and specialist skills. The term ‘Human Resource’ was once seen in companies operations as a department that issued policies, heard grievances and problems of it staff. As time went on, it then included various aspects of training that benefits administration and staffing. The focus however is gradually changing again, now as a strategic consultant to the main business, trying to match personnel and their skills with the corporate goals of the company with the view of achieving competitive advantage. Human Resource outsourcing is becoming popular due to the perceived numerous benefits with emphasis on cost effectiveness and adding value to the organisation. In the United Kingdom, the growth of Human Resource outsourcing stemmed from increased demand in the public sector but now the private sector is also expressing more interest. (Winkleman et al, 1995) explained: outsourcing is actually not a new concept because organisations have always hired outside providers services in assisting their operations, especially Information and Communication Technology (ICT). What makes it different today is the range of services organisations are asking for from suppliers and the extent to which it has become politically correct and responses to changing market and corporate conditions. The rationale for outsourcing is simple and compelling in that contracting part of the operation is seen to be cheaper than the company doing all by itself. (Hendry,1995) in his discussion states that outsourcing not only enable organisation to make gains but also allow them to focus more especially on those activities it can perform better in-house. Even though the cost factor is obvious, (Rubin, 1990) emphasized the point that it is more important to understand the managerial basis of decision-making. Aside its cost effectiveness, it also has a strategic dimension whilst organisations attempt to find the ‘right size to fit a new environment’. The reason why organisations decide to outsource is the seasonal demand swings where there may be need for more hands on board to meet customer demand. Analysing the diagram below†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦, outsourcing could be considered as a continuum in that at one point staff may be needed temporary and at some points may be taken on to perform complete responsibility. Timing is also a key factor in the process. Thus from the diagram, the short-term market exchanges at one point and the long-term relational exchanges at the other. Operational task to relieve capacity overload Consultancy, capacity augmentation skill providers (Stopper, 2005) reported British Petroleum (BP) in 1999 spent $600 million towards its global human resource administration and management, for a contract of seven years. In the year 2000 however, BP’s revenue increased to $22 billion, about 8% of the total amount spent on the Human Resource that year. BP reduced its ongoing operating costs by at least $15million a year and avoided more than $30million in capital expenditures as a result of outsourcing it Human Resource services. (Dell, 2004) in his research, reported a Conference Board survey of 122 large companies in 2003. The report revealed that 79% of top managers voted cost reduction as the motive for outsourcing Human Resource services. Other research proved among the reasons for outsourcing, the most prevalent, thus 42% voted providing better services to employees and 25% to improve efficiency, effectiveness or productivity. The motive of BP Human Resource outsourcing was to reduce cost but improve efficiency. EXULT, the supplier took total charge of BP’s total Human Resource process, leaving BP dealing with stuff that require more attention, such as their policy .Advocators of Human Resource outsourcing share their views on the grounds that Human Resource has an increasingly complex legal environment, and for succes s in mergers and or acquisitions, it requires special skills, knowledge and Human Resource attention. The question is ‘‘will the process work for everyone’’? Is it necessary for every company or an organisation considering outsourcing its Human Resource? There are therefore arguments in support of and against Human Resource outsourcing in this debate. This study seeks to answer the following questions finding out basically why companies will outsource their Human Resource and to what benefits there are for such companies. It also analyses the level of control the company has on the process. Contrarily to this opinion, (Morton, 2003) argued that Human Resource outsourcing is a faddish trend. His question is, ‘‘would the supplier know one’s business as well as the owner and can he really visualise the exact issue on the ground’’? Again, is it advisable for an outsider to take decisions on your behalf’’? His words are: ‘‘your people are your biggest resource. It is important to keep hold of power over them’’. Klaas, with his theoretical study on the impact of Human Resource outsourcing also believes that companies should not take things for granted but rather be well aware of the potential dangers of the process of Human Resource outsourcing before engaging in it. His concern, however, is on the variables of Professional Employer Organisations (PEOs). The PEO variables involve staff time cost, administration fees, HR outcomes and compensation cost. These however, vary from one company to the other. He therefore advised that companies should carefully research into these variables and consider whether to outsource or not. The word ‘trust’ is also very important in determining the relationship in any successful outsource. 1.3RESEARCH QUESTIONS: What drives the Human Resource outsourcing process? To what extent does Human Resource outsourcing help or hinder a firm’s success? 1.4AIM OF THE STUDY: The ultimate aim of this study is to establish the principal factor associated with the decision to outsource, and the benefits organisations derive from doing so. 1.5OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY: Explore the reasons for Human Resource outsourcing Examine and analyse the various benefits derived from outsourcing the Human Resource sector of a company Examine how successful Human Resource outsourcing has been Provide the essential keys to successful Human Resource outsourcing what aspect of the Human Resource function do companies outsource what category of staff do companies outsource 1.6 RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY: 1.6.1 History of Human Resource outsourcing in the United Kingdom. A research by Arthur Anderson concluded that 75% of the top 200 United Kingdom firms believed that personnel administration is a core function and should not be outsourced, 49% also assessed training as a core function whilst 39% agreed to payroll being a fundamental activity to the business. The study however identified a change in perception over the last four years. Functions previously seen as core and for that matter should not be outsourced are now considered eligible for outsourcing. One of the opinions that the human resource outsourcing has been mainly reactive rather than proactive since it deals with the consequences rather than being involved from the onset. Further argument on core competencies emphasises on the fact that the Human Resource function, importantly has more work to do with fewer resources. The recent development in technology creates more function for the human personnel department. This means that personnel need to work and learn the varying skills and knowledge needed to control such machines. In effect Human Resource professionals have moved away from the conventional way of Human Resource Management whilst they master new and different skills and competencies. They must therefore exhibit a better and broader understanding of organisational strategies and manage change. Having leadership skills, creatively and being innovative are very important skills in Human Resource outsourcing. Consultant seeking for business and top management who assure that as far as outsourcing has worked for Information Technology; it must also work for Human Resource. The human resource department in attempt to restructure the entire industries end up as formulators and implementers of downsizing and as targets of downsizing themselves. As a result, Human Resource managers in the United Kingdom trying to redefine their role from being a personnel and employee relations functions to become a â€Å"strategic partner† within the company. This will not stop them from delivering their usual good services to employees and shareholders. The human resource function is therefore under pressure to compete by being better, faster and more cost-effective. There is also pressure from employees as they seek accurate information and efficiency; again they take increasing responsibility for the choice and cost of various benefits as well as increasing their level of expectation. 1.6.2 The extent of Human Resource outsourcing in the United Kingdom A survey by magazine ‘Human Resource’ in May 2000 revealed the following results. There were 50 executive interviewees from the Financial Times Stock Exchange top 250. The findings were that despite a long history and noise on Human Resource Outsourcing, more than a third of companies in the United Kingdom does not outsource any of their human resource work. They solely perform all their human resource functions in-house. 58% of respondent retain their benefits work in-house whiles 46% their payroll and then 59% their pensions. It was noted that car fleet management seems to be the only service where large-scale outsourcing takes place. It employs about 46%, taking advantage of services provided by companies such as LEX. The study suggests that companies engaged in outsourcing do not even outsource the whole process out rather a portion of their main Human Resource functions. About 55% of respondents outsourced part of their recruitment function as compared to only 9% outsourcing it all. In the same way, 61% outsourced some of their training function but no one outsourced the entire function. The survey also suggested that the level of personnel especially the senior level was a major factor why companies outsource, for instance a third of companies outsource for their senior staff in terms of recruitment as well as training. The survey revealed that fleet management is most commonly outsourced in its entirety, next is pensions and then payroll, other functions partially outsourced are training, pensions, benefits, recruitment and payroll. Payroll and personnel –related outsourcing is well practised in the United States (US) and some analysts have predicted United Kingdom following suit but in a modified form sometime to come. The survey showed the figure below Outsourcing prevalence for different human resource functions in % Source: Human Resource HR survey May 2002 There are five competence factors influencing the outsourcing phenomenon downsizing rapid growth or decline restructuring increased competition globalisation Theorists Peter and Waterman (1982), promulgated the concentration on what companies â€Å"do best† and promoted the idea of sticking to the knitting. Hamal and Prahalad (1990) introduced the core competencies, which is the concentration on the company’s main strategies. In 1986 Miles and Snow initiate the concept of the network organisation, in this situation the core company focused on its major activities whilst contracting out and managing activities of third party. This theory was further developed by Reich in 1991 stating that western companies would have to concentrate their efforts on ‘knowledge based’ activities to form elements of an enterprise web. 1.6.3 Advantages of Human Resource outsourcing The main advantages of the Human Resource outsourcing are listed as: Enhances time management Provides better quality products / services Reduces fixed costs Better investments through technological advancement Support managers to focus in their communicating and integrating Human Resource policy Suppliers having dealt with different organisations always have new experience and approaches 1.6.4 Disadvantages of Human Resource outsourcing Main problems associated with Human Resource outsourcing are: Hidden cost is underestimated Inadequate knowledge and understanding by suppliers of core business Accountability of supports service provided Inability of suppliers to maintain quality of service Communication problems between the two parties 1.6.5 Limitation of Human Resource outsourcing Bill Carney in his article identified five key limitations Immediate cost savings Provider limitations Profit maximisation not guaranteed Limited customization Limited control Supplier management 1.6.6 Is Human Resource outsourcing right for everyone? Human Resource outsourcing is not the solution to all modern Human Resrource and administrative problems. Many companies do not consider the nature of their business to develop a comprehensive sourcing analysis framework. The underlying business needs of reducing cost often done through downsizing of staff may not be realised One significant disadvantage with the process is the potential misalignment of corporate and Human Resource strategies and priorities. Thus what seems beneficial to one Human Resource manager may not be same in the wider corporate context. 1.6.7 Effective organisational entry practices To have an effective entry practice, depends on good analysis throughout the sequential process. should an error happen, the whole sequence may be affected and prove more costly to employers, not only in terms of financial loss but will also disrupt the progress of work. This process might also de-motivate established staff and loose out to the competition. The diagram below shows the stages in the organisational entry process. Basic stages of the organisational entry process ANALYSIS RECRUITMENT Assess the best way to attract the candidates matching the selection criteria Determine how the company wants to present itself to recruits Link recruitments strategy to the information the company needs to gain in the selection process Assess the performance of previous recruitment drivers Evaluation of knowledge, skills and abilities required in the short term Long-term planning on how job profile may change Evaluation of organisational culture/strategy and how it may change ANALYSIS Review / feedback from each stage of the process to raise the efficiency SELECTION Determine which tools to use to assess if a candidate matches the required criteria/competencies Determine the level of flexibility the company can afford in the terms offered to attract the best recruits Link selection strategy to information about corporate culture Determine what the new employee needs to know to work effectively and fit in as soon as possible INDUSTRIAL Source: Market tracking international ltd ( MTI) A survey conducted by the DDI (1991) involving 1000 HR directors from leading United Kingdom companies depicts that ‘hiring the right people’ was rated as the most important issue people may face. The next one is â€Å"motivating and retaining employees† with regard to staff turnover costs, the result of the survey showed that 10% of firms incur costs in excess of  £5million per annum; and more worryingly, 69% of firms do not bother to calculate the cost of staff turnover. Further research showed that the 1980s and the early 1990s recession contributed to cost-cutting, downsizing and restructuring in a number of industry sectors. This led to the change in the employment market and altering the recruitment and selections strategies of organisations. It again suggests that new job opportunities are more likely in the service sector, commonly among highly skilled. Also there has been an increase in the part-time, temporary and contract-work as companies strive to achieve flexibility in order to cope with changing market demands. The graph below shows how United Kingdom employment sectors are affected by staff shortages 1.6.8 Types of Human Resource outsourcing Researchers have grouped outsourcing into the following groups: Total outsourcing: outsourcing is considered as total outsourcing when a company decides to outsource about 70%-80% of a particular function to a single supplier with the aim of concentrating on the company’s core competencies. This â€Å"hundred percent† of a personnel service has generated into argument. First of all, it is argued that a major portion of personnel work is so central to the strategic objectives and the culture of the organisation. For this matter the company itself can only effectively carry out the personnel work. The second argument is certain situations are hard to predict but may require immediate responses example is industrial dispute. For this reason it becomes difficult to contract out such tasks to a supplier who can not guarantee the proper action needed. Further arguments suggest that they have not yet discovered a significant Human Resource supplier for 100% total outsourcing. There exist only few suppliers who are able to take on a complete personnel service. Multiple / selective outsourcing: companies negotiate with numerous suppliers so as to keep them in a state of healthy competition under short-term contracts. It has an aim of retaining suppliers on larger-term contracts. Joint venture / strategic: it refers to partnering with other suppliers in executing a particular project so as to share risk and rewards. The outsourcing is the risk factor to the company (client) and the same time maintain strong ownership and control Temporary outsourcing partnership: is a short-term contract usually 1-2 years for the smaller companies who cannot justly handle external consultancy. Transformational outsourcing (Information Technology Information System applications): it is an application within the technology / information system field. Business process outsourcing (BPO): is considered as the sharpest end of the outsourcing spectrum, it involves outsourcing critical important business processes such as finance and accounting, internal audit and procurement etc. it is actually a rapidly growing area. Insourcing: this could mean reclaiming of application that had previously been outsourced; it is done in two ways, either hiring consultants to re-engineer the in-house department or through conventional in-house bidding. Partial outsourcing transfer: is the partial transfer of services and associated resources, it involves outsourcing fairly routine and well established practices such as pay roll and at the same time retaining newer systems in-house. The company remains the managers of the process and takes most decisions. Asset purchasing: is where the supplier decides to buy the entire set of physical assets from the clients company. It is also a form of cash flow to the company for selling its assets. There is also transfer of personnel from the company to the supplier; however the place of work does not change. (Lee, 2002) also categorised Human Resource outsourcing into three aspects: Professional Employers Organisation (PEO) – Application Service Provider (ASP) Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) PEOs have a duty of managing a company’s human resources, take charge of employee’s legal issues and undertake basic Human Resource functions as recruitment and selection including performance appraisal. In most cases PEO form partnership with other suppliers. The PEO concentrate on the Human Resource aspect of the business, the company on the other hand handles the other aspect. Sometimes due to the nature of Human Resource, the company may decide to enter into strategic alliance or joint venture in order to have some level of control over the Human Resource management. Within the context of Human Resource outsourcing, organisations specific needs and processes vary. Some organisations tend to outsource virtually all of it Human Resource Processes whilst others concentrate on specific areas of the process such as staff recruitment, staff training, payroll or resources. About 9% outsourced all of it recruitment function while about 55% of respondents outsource part of their recruitment function. Amstrong (2001) introduced a list of Human Resource areas that are often outsourced. These are: Training, Payroll Management, Health and Safety Monitoring and Advice, Recruitment and finally Employee Welfare and Counselling activities. More so Workplace Employee Relations Survey (WERS) in 2004 revealed that Training, Payroll and Resourcing of temporary positions are the most common component that companies seek to outsource. It is noted that very few organisations such as British Telecom, Boots the Chemist, Procter Gamble have outsourced their entire Human Resource functions and the most recently is Unilever. ASPs: Application Service Providers focuses on software applications. They deal with software processes and rent to users. They have standardised off-the shelf applications and the customised Human Resource software development. It is designed to manage payroll, benefits among others. BPO: this refers to Business Process Outsourcing, which focuses on outsourcing managerial and operational functions in Human Resource. BPO is also in charge of monitoring the latest information systems. In the United Kingdom, a change in political ideology after 18 years of conservative government rule is seen as a driver of the outsourcing, as a means of reducing cost and raising efficiency, the use of outsourcing was promoted. This really showed in the public sector through the introduction of market-based instruments and the formation of internal market as in the health service Different authors have classified outsourcing drivers. According to (Winkleman et al, 1993) there are two basic drivers for outsourcing success; these are cost reduction and strategic shift in how organisations operate. (Grupter et al, 1992) added two more drivers as market forces and technical considerations. (Hiemstra et al, 1993) also indicated four drivers, which are cost, capital, knowledge and capacity. (Beulen et al, 1994) suggested five main drivers for outsourcing: quality, cost, finance, core-business and cooperation. 1.6.9 Drivers for outsourcing: ( Beulen et al; 1994) outlines the following general drivers for outsourcing: Quality: actual capacity is temporarily inefficient to comply with demand. The quality motive can be subdivided into three aspects: increased quality demands, shortage of qualified personnel and outsourcing as a transition period. Cost: outsourcing is a possible solution to control increasing costs and its compatible with a cost leadership strategy by controlling and decreasing costs, a company can increase its competitive position. Finance: a company has a limited investment budget. The funds must be used for investments in core business activities, which are long-term decisions. Core-Business: core-business is a primary activity with which an organisation generates revenue. To concentrate on core-business activities is a strategic decision, all subsequent activities are mainly supportive and should be outsourced. Cooperation: cooperation between companies can lead to conflict. In order to avoid such conflict those activities that are produced by both organisations should be subject to total outsourcing. However these factors cannot be in isolation, they are not sufficient enough as attention needs to be given to the context in which such decisions are taken. Consideration should be given to the internal and external environment within which the organisation operates. The organisation’s objectives and most importantly its culture may effect the implementation and sustainability of the policy, once made. Considering the factors that drives and influence outsourcing decisions, Chris Fill in his research established three key emerging issues: the contextual factors represented by an organisation’s particular internal and external conditions the strategic and structural aspects associated with an organisation’s decision to reconfigure the costs associated with the process or activity under review It is very necessary for managers to consider these three aspects when deciding to outsource. A framework illustrates the process A composite outsourcing decision framework Outsourcing Management Consideration And judgement Contextual factors Strategy Structure Transaction Costs Source: Management Decision vol. 38 No.1, (2000) CHAPTER TWO 2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW: The most important and cherished asset of any company is its Human Resource – the staff. Even with all the most current technology, personnel are first because without manpower, nothing gets done. The success of every organisation depends on the quality of staff employed. On the other hand it could be disastrous if the right decision is not taken in choosing the right people with the right skills in the right position. The kind of skills employed makes a vast difference between a business success and it failure. In the business environment, some companies may employ solely skilled personnel, others require both skilled and semi skilled personnel and others unskilled labour force. In the retail sector for example, the nature of the work demands both skilled and semi skilled staff with the semi – skilled dominating. The skilled staff basically are managers such as the marketing and advertising managers, accounting managers, purchasing and supplier managers and general ov erseers. The challenge is how to get those people into the right places in order not to under utilise or over utilise their services. For instance, it might not be necessary to employ a professional who is to be paid as a sales assistant to be serving customers, but rather have a responsibility of planning and strategising how to win customers and be ahead of it competitors. In order to make the best decision, t Human Resource Outsourcing in the UK Human Resource Outsourcing in the UK HUMAN RESOURCE OUTSOURCING: A GENERAL STUDY OF UNITED KINGDOM RETAILERS’ USE OF OUTSOURCED PERSONNEL, REASONS AND BENEFITS. ABSTRACT: Human Resource outsourcing is considered an important factor in today’s business world. It is constantly growing, especially in the global world where companies outsource not just within their country but across borders. This research concentrates on Human Resource outsourcing in the retail sector, including both small and medium size firms in the United Kingdom. The ultimate aim of this research is outlined below: To find out why companies outsource their Human Resource – their first and foremost reasons. To find out what benefits there are in this process. To find out if there are any control mechanisms linked to the process. To find answers to these questions, five retail managers were interviewed: three respondents interviewed were conducted face to face and two were phoned interviewed. Again, fifty questionnaires were sent out to recruitment agencies who are the suppliers of the Human Resource, to confirm if they share the same opinion with retail managers who are their clients. Out of the fifty questionnaires, 30 were retrieved and analysed. The results revealed that companies do not outsource all of their Human Resource functions. Recruitment is the key function outsourced for the simple reason of convenience and time saving. However, benefits are enormous including cost effectiveness, achieving higher core competency levels, greater flexibility and accessibility to expertise, reducing workload of staff etc. Results also depict two categories of outsourced staff, which are temporary staff and permanent staff with temporary staff being the majority. CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1There have been many issues surrounding outsourcing of Human Resource. It implications are wide and varied. Though there are many benefits, it is faced with challenges as well. Companies who have managed their challenges well have been successful others on the other hand have redrawn from the process. The topic was chosen because is an issue being discussed currently all over the globe and the retail sector is proving to be a sector that employs a greater percentage of the workforce. Chapter one gives a definition of outsourcing and discusses what outsourcing is all about. It gives relevant examples of those companies practicing Human Resource outsourcing and the results of their practice. Chapter two is the literature review. The literature review establishes concise framework and reveals various reasons why companies tend to outsource and its subsequent benefits. It also raises the issues of concern and the control outsourcers have over their suppliers. It discusses people’s opinion about the Human Resource outsourcing giving the pros and cons of the issue. Part two of chapter two gives the factors that drives the process Chapter three is basically about the retail sector and how it operates in the United Kingdom analysing the importance of the Human Resource in retailing. How data was collected is discussed in chapter four and further analysed. Finally findings are reported and conclusion with limitations given in the last chapter. 1.2Background of study Outsourcing has been defined by Gupta and Gupta (1992) as ‘the concept of hiring outside professional services to meet the in-house needs of an organisation or agency’ another explanation is a managerial approach delegating non-core functions of the organisation to other specialist and efficient services providers. In recent times, many companies are considering outsourcing their Human Resource because it is becoming a viable option. In the United Kingdom (UNITED KINGDOM), the situation has been drastic, especially in the retail sector. Human Resource indeed is one of the major factors of production and cannot be ignored in anyway for a business success. Human Resource is constantly growing and keeping abreast with the dynamic business world, which relies heavily on the technology advancement and specialist skills. The term ‘Human Resource’ was once seen in companies operations as a department that issued policies, heard grievances and problems of it staff. As time went on, it then included various aspects of training that benefits administration and staffing. The focus however is gradually changing again, now as a strategic consultant to the main business, trying to match personnel and their skills with the corporate goals of the company with the view of achieving competitive advantage. Human Resource outsourcing is becoming popular due to the perceived numerous benefits with emphasis on cost effectiveness and adding value to the organisation. In the United Kingdom, the growth of Human Resource outsourcing stemmed from increased demand in the public sector but now the private sector is also expressing more interest. (Winkleman et al, 1995) explained: outsourcing is actually not a new concept because organisations have always hired outside providers services in assisting their operations, especially Information and Communication Technology (ICT). What makes it different today is the range of services organisations are asking for from suppliers and the extent to which it has become politically correct and responses to changing market and corporate conditions. The rationale for outsourcing is simple and compelling in that contracting part of the operation is seen to be cheaper than the company doing all by itself. (Hendry,1995) in his discussion states that outsourcing not only enable organisation to make gains but also allow them to focus more especially on those activities it can perform better in-house. Even though the cost factor is obvious, (Rubin, 1990) emphasized the point that it is more important to understand the managerial basis of decision-making. Aside its cost effectiveness, it also has a strategic dimension whilst organisations attempt to find the ‘right size to fit a new environment’. The reason why organisations decide to outsource is the seasonal demand swings where there may be need for more hands on board to meet customer demand. Analysing the diagram below†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦, outsourcing could be considered as a continuum in that at one point staff may be needed temporary and at some points may be taken on to perform complete responsibility. Timing is also a key factor in the process. Thus from the diagram, the short-term market exchanges at one point and the long-term relational exchanges at the other. Operational task to relieve capacity overload Consultancy, capacity augmentation skill providers (Stopper, 2005) reported British Petroleum (BP) in 1999 spent $600 million towards its global human resource administration and management, for a contract of seven years. In the year 2000 however, BP’s revenue increased to $22 billion, about 8% of the total amount spent on the Human Resource that year. BP reduced its ongoing operating costs by at least $15million a year and avoided more than $30million in capital expenditures as a result of outsourcing it Human Resource services. (Dell, 2004) in his research, reported a Conference Board survey of 122 large companies in 2003. The report revealed that 79% of top managers voted cost reduction as the motive for outsourcing Human Resource services. Other research proved among the reasons for outsourcing, the most prevalent, thus 42% voted providing better services to employees and 25% to improve efficiency, effectiveness or productivity. The motive of BP Human Resource outsourcing was to reduce cost but improve efficiency. EXULT, the supplier took total charge of BP’s total Human Resource process, leaving BP dealing with stuff that require more attention, such as their policy .Advocators of Human Resource outsourcing share their views on the grounds that Human Resource has an increasingly complex legal environment, and for succes s in mergers and or acquisitions, it requires special skills, knowledge and Human Resource attention. The question is ‘‘will the process work for everyone’’? Is it necessary for every company or an organisation considering outsourcing its Human Resource? There are therefore arguments in support of and against Human Resource outsourcing in this debate. This study seeks to answer the following questions finding out basically why companies will outsource their Human Resource and to what benefits there are for such companies. It also analyses the level of control the company has on the process. Contrarily to this opinion, (Morton, 2003) argued that Human Resource outsourcing is a faddish trend. His question is, ‘‘would the supplier know one’s business as well as the owner and can he really visualise the exact issue on the ground’’? Again, is it advisable for an outsider to take decisions on your behalf’’? His words are: ‘‘your people are your biggest resource. It is important to keep hold of power over them’’. Klaas, with his theoretical study on the impact of Human Resource outsourcing also believes that companies should not take things for granted but rather be well aware of the potential dangers of the process of Human Resource outsourcing before engaging in it. His concern, however, is on the variables of Professional Employer Organisations (PEOs). The PEO variables involve staff time cost, administration fees, HR outcomes and compensation cost. These however, vary from one company to the other. He therefore advised that companies should carefully research into these variables and consider whether to outsource or not. The word ‘trust’ is also very important in determining the relationship in any successful outsource. 1.3RESEARCH QUESTIONS: What drives the Human Resource outsourcing process? To what extent does Human Resource outsourcing help or hinder a firm’s success? 1.4AIM OF THE STUDY: The ultimate aim of this study is to establish the principal factor associated with the decision to outsource, and the benefits organisations derive from doing so. 1.5OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY: Explore the reasons for Human Resource outsourcing Examine and analyse the various benefits derived from outsourcing the Human Resource sector of a company Examine how successful Human Resource outsourcing has been Provide the essential keys to successful Human Resource outsourcing what aspect of the Human Resource function do companies outsource what category of staff do companies outsource 1.6 RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY: 1.6.1 History of Human Resource outsourcing in the United Kingdom. A research by Arthur Anderson concluded that 75% of the top 200 United Kingdom firms believed that personnel administration is a core function and should not be outsourced, 49% also assessed training as a core function whilst 39% agreed to payroll being a fundamental activity to the business. The study however identified a change in perception over the last four years. Functions previously seen as core and for that matter should not be outsourced are now considered eligible for outsourcing. One of the opinions that the human resource outsourcing has been mainly reactive rather than proactive since it deals with the consequences rather than being involved from the onset. Further argument on core competencies emphasises on the fact that the Human Resource function, importantly has more work to do with fewer resources. The recent development in technology creates more function for the human personnel department. This means that personnel need to work and learn the varying skills and knowledge needed to control such machines. In effect Human Resource professionals have moved away from the conventional way of Human Resource Management whilst they master new and different skills and competencies. They must therefore exhibit a better and broader understanding of organisational strategies and manage change. Having leadership skills, creatively and being innovative are very important skills in Human Resource outsourcing. Consultant seeking for business and top management who assure that as far as outsourcing has worked for Information Technology; it must also work for Human Resource. The human resource department in attempt to restructure the entire industries end up as formulators and implementers of downsizing and as targets of downsizing themselves. As a result, Human Resource managers in the United Kingdom trying to redefine their role from being a personnel and employee relations functions to become a â€Å"strategic partner† within the company. This will not stop them from delivering their usual good services to employees and shareholders. The human resource function is therefore under pressure to compete by being better, faster and more cost-effective. There is also pressure from employees as they seek accurate information and efficiency; again they take increasing responsibility for the choice and cost of various benefits as well as increasing their level of expectation. 1.6.2 The extent of Human Resource outsourcing in the United Kingdom A survey by magazine ‘Human Resource’ in May 2000 revealed the following results. There were 50 executive interviewees from the Financial Times Stock Exchange top 250. The findings were that despite a long history and noise on Human Resource Outsourcing, more than a third of companies in the United Kingdom does not outsource any of their human resource work. They solely perform all their human resource functions in-house. 58% of respondent retain their benefits work in-house whiles 46% their payroll and then 59% their pensions. It was noted that car fleet management seems to be the only service where large-scale outsourcing takes place. It employs about 46%, taking advantage of services provided by companies such as LEX. The study suggests that companies engaged in outsourcing do not even outsource the whole process out rather a portion of their main Human Resource functions. About 55% of respondents outsourced part of their recruitment function as compared to only 9% outsourcing it all. In the same way, 61% outsourced some of their training function but no one outsourced the entire function. The survey also suggested that the level of personnel especially the senior level was a major factor why companies outsource, for instance a third of companies outsource for their senior staff in terms of recruitment as well as training. The survey revealed that fleet management is most commonly outsourced in its entirety, next is pensions and then payroll, other functions partially outsourced are training, pensions, benefits, recruitment and payroll. Payroll and personnel –related outsourcing is well practised in the United States (US) and some analysts have predicted United Kingdom following suit but in a modified form sometime to come. The survey showed the figure below Outsourcing prevalence for different human resource functions in % Source: Human Resource HR survey May 2002 There are five competence factors influencing the outsourcing phenomenon downsizing rapid growth or decline restructuring increased competition globalisation Theorists Peter and Waterman (1982), promulgated the concentration on what companies â€Å"do best† and promoted the idea of sticking to the knitting. Hamal and Prahalad (1990) introduced the core competencies, which is the concentration on the company’s main strategies. In 1986 Miles and Snow initiate the concept of the network organisation, in this situation the core company focused on its major activities whilst contracting out and managing activities of third party. This theory was further developed by Reich in 1991 stating that western companies would have to concentrate their efforts on ‘knowledge based’ activities to form elements of an enterprise web. 1.6.3 Advantages of Human Resource outsourcing The main advantages of the Human Resource outsourcing are listed as: Enhances time management Provides better quality products / services Reduces fixed costs Better investments through technological advancement Support managers to focus in their communicating and integrating Human Resource policy Suppliers having dealt with different organisations always have new experience and approaches 1.6.4 Disadvantages of Human Resource outsourcing Main problems associated with Human Resource outsourcing are: Hidden cost is underestimated Inadequate knowledge and understanding by suppliers of core business Accountability of supports service provided Inability of suppliers to maintain quality of service Communication problems between the two parties 1.6.5 Limitation of Human Resource outsourcing Bill Carney in his article identified five key limitations Immediate cost savings Provider limitations Profit maximisation not guaranteed Limited customization Limited control Supplier management 1.6.6 Is Human Resource outsourcing right for everyone? Human Resource outsourcing is not the solution to all modern Human Resrource and administrative problems. Many companies do not consider the nature of their business to develop a comprehensive sourcing analysis framework. The underlying business needs of reducing cost often done through downsizing of staff may not be realised One significant disadvantage with the process is the potential misalignment of corporate and Human Resource strategies and priorities. Thus what seems beneficial to one Human Resource manager may not be same in the wider corporate context. 1.6.7 Effective organisational entry practices To have an effective entry practice, depends on good analysis throughout the sequential process. should an error happen, the whole sequence may be affected and prove more costly to employers, not only in terms of financial loss but will also disrupt the progress of work. This process might also de-motivate established staff and loose out to the competition. The diagram below shows the stages in the organisational entry process. Basic stages of the organisational entry process ANALYSIS RECRUITMENT Assess the best way to attract the candidates matching the selection criteria Determine how the company wants to present itself to recruits Link recruitments strategy to the information the company needs to gain in the selection process Assess the performance of previous recruitment drivers Evaluation of knowledge, skills and abilities required in the short term Long-term planning on how job profile may change Evaluation of organisational culture/strategy and how it may change ANALYSIS Review / feedback from each stage of the process to raise the efficiency SELECTION Determine which tools to use to assess if a candidate matches the required criteria/competencies Determine the level of flexibility the company can afford in the terms offered to attract the best recruits Link selection strategy to information about corporate culture Determine what the new employee needs to know to work effectively and fit in as soon as possible INDUSTRIAL Source: Market tracking international ltd ( MTI) A survey conducted by the DDI (1991) involving 1000 HR directors from leading United Kingdom companies depicts that ‘hiring the right people’ was rated as the most important issue people may face. The next one is â€Å"motivating and retaining employees† with regard to staff turnover costs, the result of the survey showed that 10% of firms incur costs in excess of  £5million per annum; and more worryingly, 69% of firms do not bother to calculate the cost of staff turnover. Further research showed that the 1980s and the early 1990s recession contributed to cost-cutting, downsizing and restructuring in a number of industry sectors. This led to the change in the employment market and altering the recruitment and selections strategies of organisations. It again suggests that new job opportunities are more likely in the service sector, commonly among highly skilled. Also there has been an increase in the part-time, temporary and contract-work as companies strive to achieve flexibility in order to cope with changing market demands. The graph below shows how United Kingdom employment sectors are affected by staff shortages 1.6.8 Types of Human Resource outsourcing Researchers have grouped outsourcing into the following groups: Total outsourcing: outsourcing is considered as total outsourcing when a company decides to outsource about 70%-80% of a particular function to a single supplier with the aim of concentrating on the company’s core competencies. This â€Å"hundred percent† of a personnel service has generated into argument. First of all, it is argued that a major portion of personnel work is so central to the strategic objectives and the culture of the organisation. For this matter the company itself can only effectively carry out the personnel work. The second argument is certain situations are hard to predict but may require immediate responses example is industrial dispute. For this reason it becomes difficult to contract out such tasks to a supplier who can not guarantee the proper action needed. Further arguments suggest that they have not yet discovered a significant Human Resource supplier for 100% total outsourcing. There exist only few suppliers who are able to take on a complete personnel service. Multiple / selective outsourcing: companies negotiate with numerous suppliers so as to keep them in a state of healthy competition under short-term contracts. It has an aim of retaining suppliers on larger-term contracts. Joint venture / strategic: it refers to partnering with other suppliers in executing a particular project so as to share risk and rewards. The outsourcing is the risk factor to the company (client) and the same time maintain strong ownership and control Temporary outsourcing partnership: is a short-term contract usually 1-2 years for the smaller companies who cannot justly handle external consultancy. Transformational outsourcing (Information Technology Information System applications): it is an application within the technology / information system field. Business process outsourcing (BPO): is considered as the sharpest end of the outsourcing spectrum, it involves outsourcing critical important business processes such as finance and accounting, internal audit and procurement etc. it is actually a rapidly growing area. Insourcing: this could mean reclaiming of application that had previously been outsourced; it is done in two ways, either hiring consultants to re-engineer the in-house department or through conventional in-house bidding. Partial outsourcing transfer: is the partial transfer of services and associated resources, it involves outsourcing fairly routine and well established practices such as pay roll and at the same time retaining newer systems in-house. The company remains the managers of the process and takes most decisions. Asset purchasing: is where the supplier decides to buy the entire set of physical assets from the clients company. It is also a form of cash flow to the company for selling its assets. There is also transfer of personnel from the company to the supplier; however the place of work does not change. (Lee, 2002) also categorised Human Resource outsourcing into three aspects: Professional Employers Organisation (PEO) – Application Service Provider (ASP) Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) PEOs have a duty of managing a company’s human resources, take charge of employee’s legal issues and undertake basic Human Resource functions as recruitment and selection including performance appraisal. In most cases PEO form partnership with other suppliers. The PEO concentrate on the Human Resource aspect of the business, the company on the other hand handles the other aspect. Sometimes due to the nature of Human Resource, the company may decide to enter into strategic alliance or joint venture in order to have some level of control over the Human Resource management. Within the context of Human Resource outsourcing, organisations specific needs and processes vary. Some organisations tend to outsource virtually all of it Human Resource Processes whilst others concentrate on specific areas of the process such as staff recruitment, staff training, payroll or resources. About 9% outsourced all of it recruitment function while about 55% of respondents outsource part of their recruitment function. Amstrong (2001) introduced a list of Human Resource areas that are often outsourced. These are: Training, Payroll Management, Health and Safety Monitoring and Advice, Recruitment and finally Employee Welfare and Counselling activities. More so Workplace Employee Relations Survey (WERS) in 2004 revealed that Training, Payroll and Resourcing of temporary positions are the most common component that companies seek to outsource. It is noted that very few organisations such as British Telecom, Boots the Chemist, Procter Gamble have outsourced their entire Human Resource functions and the most recently is Unilever. ASPs: Application Service Providers focuses on software applications. They deal with software processes and rent to users. They have standardised off-the shelf applications and the customised Human Resource software development. It is designed to manage payroll, benefits among others. BPO: this refers to Business Process Outsourcing, which focuses on outsourcing managerial and operational functions in Human Resource. BPO is also in charge of monitoring the latest information systems. In the United Kingdom, a change in political ideology after 18 years of conservative government rule is seen as a driver of the outsourcing, as a means of reducing cost and raising efficiency, the use of outsourcing was promoted. This really showed in the public sector through the introduction of market-based instruments and the formation of internal market as in the health service Different authors have classified outsourcing drivers. According to (Winkleman et al, 1993) there are two basic drivers for outsourcing success; these are cost reduction and strategic shift in how organisations operate. (Grupter et al, 1992) added two more drivers as market forces and technical considerations. (Hiemstra et al, 1993) also indicated four drivers, which are cost, capital, knowledge and capacity. (Beulen et al, 1994) suggested five main drivers for outsourcing: quality, cost, finance, core-business and cooperation. 1.6.9 Drivers for outsourcing: ( Beulen et al; 1994) outlines the following general drivers for outsourcing: Quality: actual capacity is temporarily inefficient to comply with demand. The quality motive can be subdivided into three aspects: increased quality demands, shortage of qualified personnel and outsourcing as a transition period. Cost: outsourcing is a possible solution to control increasing costs and its compatible with a cost leadership strategy by controlling and decreasing costs, a company can increase its competitive position. Finance: a company has a limited investment budget. The funds must be used for investments in core business activities, which are long-term decisions. Core-Business: core-business is a primary activity with which an organisation generates revenue. To concentrate on core-business activities is a strategic decision, all subsequent activities are mainly supportive and should be outsourced. Cooperation: cooperation between companies can lead to conflict. In order to avoid such conflict those activities that are produced by both organisations should be subject to total outsourcing. However these factors cannot be in isolation, they are not sufficient enough as attention needs to be given to the context in which such decisions are taken. Consideration should be given to the internal and external environment within which the organisation operates. The organisation’s objectives and most importantly its culture may effect the implementation and sustainability of the policy, once made. Considering the factors that drives and influence outsourcing decisions, Chris Fill in his research established three key emerging issues: the contextual factors represented by an organisation’s particular internal and external conditions the strategic and structural aspects associated with an organisation’s decision to reconfigure the costs associated with the process or activity under review It is very necessary for managers to consider these three aspects when deciding to outsource. A framework illustrates the process A composite outsourcing decision framework Outsourcing Management Consideration And judgement Contextual factors Strategy Structure Transaction Costs Source: Management Decision vol. 38 No.1, (2000) CHAPTER TWO 2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW: The most important and cherished asset of any company is its Human Resource – the staff. Even with all the most current technology, personnel are first because without manpower, nothing gets done. The success of every organisation depends on the quality of staff employed. On the other hand it could be disastrous if the right decision is not taken in choosing the right people with the right skills in the right position. The kind of skills employed makes a vast difference between a business success and it failure. In the business environment, some companies may employ solely skilled personnel, others require both skilled and semi skilled personnel and others unskilled labour force. In the retail sector for example, the nature of the work demands both skilled and semi skilled staff with the semi – skilled dominating. The skilled staff basically are managers such as the marketing and advertising managers, accounting managers, purchasing and supplier managers and general ov erseers. The challenge is how to get those people into the right places in order not to under utilise or over utilise their services. For instance, it might not be necessary to employ a professional who is to be paid as a sales assistant to be serving customers, but rather have a responsibility of planning and strategising how to win customers and be ahead of it competitors. In order to make the best decision, t