Essay about The United States from 1865 to 1950 - 1172 Words

The United States changed dramatically from 1865 to 1950. Many changes occurred in industrialization, foreign affairs, government, as well as in society and culture. The events that took place within this time period helped shape this country into what it is today. Industrial development began with the railroad, with the help of Republican governments, who provided subsidies, loans and tax exemptions to railroad corporations. Over 52,000 miles of railroad were laid all over the nation between 1854 and 1879. Railroads stimulated growth. They required many resources to build, such as coal, wood, glass, rubber, and brass. Most importantly, the railroad connected the country. Although small factories were already up and running three†¦show more content†¦Industrialization changed the lives of the people of this nation. By the late nineteenth century, with advances in technology, communication, and transportation, a new type of industrialization was formed, a global one. At the end of the nineteenth century an elite group containing Christian missionaries, intellectuals, business leaders, commercial farmers, and navy careerists, lobbied the White House, Congress, and the State and War departments for the United States to be more active abroad. In the 1880’s, Congress started a program to modernize the United States’ navy. With the improved navy, the country had what it took to turn into an imperial power. Missionaries set out teach natives abroad the Western culture and convert them to Christianity. Entrepreneurs expanded their businesses overseas. The Singer Sewing Machine Company sent 60,000 representatives to China to try to sell their products. Minor Keith and his Tropical Fruit Company were building railroads in Costa Rica. Foreign investments flourished, while the depression of 1893 worsened at home. America’s imperial moment arrived when they freed Cuba from Spanish rule. America had to do what was necessary to keep Spain at Bay. President McKinley cautiously lobbied to Spain that they stop destroying American property in Cuba. Since Spain was unwilling to compromise, in 1898, McKinley sent over the battleship Maine, to show that the UnitedShow MoreRelatedThe Changing Concept of Race in the South Essay580 Words   |  3 Pages Throughout the years, the concept of race has changed in the South. Slavery and the concept of â€Å"white supremacy† have largely contributed to the viewpoints of race in the southern states, as well as the rest of the country. The definition of race has changed, as well as the effects of race on a nation. Prior to the sixteenth century, race was defined as descendants of a common ancestor, or your kin. This definitionRead MoreThe Ku Klux Klan, also known as the Klan or the KKK, originated in Pulaski, Tennessee, in 1865.600 Words   |  3 Pagesoriginated in Pulaski, Tennessee, in 1865. 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The first provision of the Westward Expansion was the Compromise of 1850. This compromise was designed to settle disputes among the North and South states about slavery expansion. Senator Henry Clay proposed that California be admitted as a free slave in a trade-off for tougher fugitive slave laws for runaways. As a part of the compromise of 1950, Congress also passed the Fugitive Law

Law for Stevens v Brodribb Sawmilling Co Pty Ltd †Free Samples

Question: Discuss about the Law for Stevens v Brodribb Sawmilling Co Pty Ltd. Answer: The contract for service and contract of service though may sound similar but are not the same as each other. In a contract of service the relationship between the parties is that of an employee and an employer. On the other hand contract for service is of an independent contract, the relationship that exists between them is that of an independent contractor and an engager. Though this might seem straightforward however there still remains confusion as to differentiation between the two. As has been stated by the, then, Australian Industrial Relations Commission in the case of Sammartino v Mayne Nickless Toleration of an amorphous contractual distinction being used to shield arrangements that are not materially different, serves to encourage anomalies in the operation of the [applicable] regulatory regime (Sammartino v Mayne Nickless, [2000]). The central issue has been highlighted by AIRC in categorizing the relationships in a work environment, the fact that there still does not exi st a practical and accepted legal test for distinguishing the employees. Though the operation of legislations related to workplace both the State and Commonwealth are tied to their being a relationship of employment between the parties, while the main concern of the proposed Independent Contractors Bill 2006 is the independent contractors conduct (Creighton and Stewart, 2016). There is however, nowhere, an attempt of defining either the term independent contractor or the term employee. beyond the meaning that it holds under common law. It is essential thus to always keep turning to common law for determining the nature of relationship of work between the parties. There is no single conclusive test that exists in when it comes to the classification of relationship which as mentioned by the AIRC is the central problem when it comes to defining relationships. The control test was the traditional test that was used for determining whether there existed a employer employee relationship. It depended on how and to what extent the control was exercised what was essential was the actual exercise and the degree of control (Pittard, Naughton and McCallum, 2003). This control test however, is no longer useful and has eroded over time as in may modern situation the skill of the employee exceeds the employers expertise (Creighton et al., 2016). Thus there may be a significant amount of autonomy that is given to the employee for the exercise of these skills. There is in practice a multi factor approach that is used by courts. In other words there is no one test that determines the relationship but the totality of the situation is observed by the court. Though, control is essential there are other elements apart from control which are observed (Sappideen et al., 2016). In the case of Performing Right Society Ltd v Mitchell and Booker (Palais de Danse) Ltd the factors which are considered in connection with determining the work relationship between the band and the defendant as had been disclosed in writing by the parties where that, of regular working hours indicated employment; fixed employment period though inconclusive suggested that there was employment; dictation of place of work though inconclusive suggested that there was employment; demand of exclusivity of service indicated employment; right of dismissing summarily for breach of reasonable requirement or instruction this is associated traditionally with employment; dominant, detailed and continuous control on everything including the music that was to be played indicated employment (Performing Right Society Ltd v Mitchell and Booker (Palais de Danse) Ltd, [1924]). These factors were weighed and it was opined that the band was an employee. The court in reaching this opinion stated that It seems, however, reasonably clear that the final test, if there be a final test, and certainly the test to be generally applied, lies in the nature and degree of detailed control over the person alleged to be a servant. The traditional emphasis being placed on control was apparent in this case. There were however, other factors which were being considered.common law There, however, has been a change in this test and the High Court in the case of Stevens v Brodribb Sawmilling Co Pty Ltd placed into perspective the control test stating that though the fact that control existed is significant however, it is not the only criteria for gauging whether the relationship is of an independent contractor or an employee (Stevens v Brodribb Sawmilling Co Pty Ltd, [1986]). It was regarded as merely an indicator and reinforced this point by stating that Control is not now regarded as the only relevant factor. Rather it is the totality of the relationship between the parties which must be considered. In this case the multi indica test was highlighted by the High Court wherein it stated that The existence of control, whilst significant, is not the sole criterion by which to gauge whether a relationship is one of employment. Other relevant matters include, but are not limited to, the mode of remuneration, the provision and maintenance of equipment, the obligation to work, the hours of work and provision of holidays, the deduction of income tax and the delegation of work by the putative employee (Stevens v Brodribb Sawmilling Co Pty Ltd, [1986]). It further stated that It is 'no longer sufficient to consider only the extent to which the employer may exercise control (whether actual or the authority to do so) over those sought to be characterised as employees'. However, it must be noted that in most cases it is still appropriate to apply the 'control test' in the first instance because it remains the surest guide to whether a person is contracting independently or serving as an employee (Stevens v Brodribb Sawmilling Co Pty Ltd, [1986]). This approach that the High Court adopted was confirmed further in the decisions of Vabu and Sweeney. In the case of Vabu the High Court decided ultimately that the courier was Hollis v Vabu employee thus making Vabu liable vicariously for the negligence of the courier. The High Court in determining Mr. Holliss claim disagreed with the conclusion that was reached by court of appeal and stated that too much of an emphasis was placed on the maintenance and ownership of the bicycles by the courier and providing of their own equipment (Hollis v Vabu, [2001]). The indica that was referred to by the court for determining the relationship was that there was no or little control which the couriers had regarding the performance of their job; a uniform was required to be worn by the couriers presenting them as emanation of Vabu before the public; the dangers to the pedestrians was known to Vabu presented by the couriers however, there was a failure to adopt any personal identification by public of individual couriers by any mean; couriers finances were administered by Vabu there was no scope o ffered for bargaining the remuneration by the couriers and there was limited scope for the couriers to undertake enterprise of their own (Collins, 2010). Therefore the fact that the couriers were required to supply equipment and transport on their own was not determinative (Riley, 2007). In this case departing from the judgment of the majority it was found by Justice McHugh that the worker was neither an employee nor an independent contract, however, there would be vicarious liability on the employer for the conduct of the worker. The view that was expressed by him that this case was not such wherein the definition of independent contractor or employee should be expanded for including couriers/worker roles. According to him the couriers were neither employees nor were they independent contractors. His honor instead stated that there was an opportunity which was provided by this case for adapting the vicarious liability doctrine to fit better the workplace environment in the modern times (Stewart, 2015). It was stated by him It is true that the couriers employed by Vabu are neither employees nor independent contractors in the strict sense. But there is no reason in policy for upholding the strict classification of employees and non-employees in the law of vicarious liability and depriving Mr Hollis of compensation. Rather than expanding the definition of employee or accepting the employee/independent contractor dichotomy, the preferable cause is to hold that employers can be vicariously liable for the tortious conduct of agents who are neither employees nor independent contractors. Thus stating in this case that the worker who defaulted was neither an employee or an independent contract, but should have been probably categorised as the employers agent, thus nevertheless making the employer negligent under vicarious liability. In the later decision of High Court in the case of Sweeney v Boylan Nominees Pty Ltd there were similar considerations that arose where the majority rejected the wider application of the vicarious liability principle which was advocated in Vabu by McHugh J. It was held in this case by majority that Boylan was not liable vicariously for the mechanics actions because he 'did what he did not as an employee... but as a principal pursuing his own business or as an employee of his own company pursuing its business'. The majority in its joint judgment stated that The wider proposition that underpinned the argument of the [plaintiff], that if A 'represents' B, B is vicariously liable for the conduct of A, is a proposition of such generality that it goes well beyond the bounds set by notions of control (with old, and now imperfect analogies of servitude) or set by notions of course of employment.Those bounds should not now be redrawn in the manner asserted by the appellant (Sweeney v Boylan Nominees Pty Ltd, [2006]). This opinion was dissented by Justice Kirby who stated that the changing social scenario was to be kept in mind which were affecting the employments economic activities or in contemporary Australia quasi-employment. If reliance was placed on the recognized exceptions, which is quite narrow, then the rule in general discussed, there would be a liability that Boylan would have towards the plaintiff based on the fact that the mechanic represented as an agent of the party who was sued, performing the functions of the party and advancing the economic interest that it has, as part of its enterprise effectively (Burnett, 2007). It is also important to mention the test of economic dependence, this test although has not received much support from the courts, it may still be essential for considering when determining if an individual is an independent contractor or an employee (Lawlor and Willey, 2017). This test requires that there should be an examination in the economic relationship of the practical reality rather than scrutinizing the terms in details on which the engagement of the worker was done formerly. It is is only if the worker is in business on their account or is operating as an 'independent economic unit' (Price and Neilsen, 2009). It can be stated that in Hollis v Vabu the High Court was leaning towards this test when discussing on the matters relating to the engagement of the courier left the courier with limited scope of engaging in a business enterprise of its own. A clear example of this can be viewed in Gray Js judgment in the case of Re Porter: A party may be described as an independent contractor, and the contract may even provide expressly that he or she is at liberty to provide services to other persons, outside of the contract. The reality may be that economic considerations dictate that work will only be accepted from the other party to the contract... In such circumstances, there is no particular reason why a court should ignore the practical circumstances, and cling to the theoretical niceties. The level of economic dependence of one party upon another, and the manner in which that economic dependence may be exploited, will always be relevant factors in the determination whether a particular contract is one of employment (Re Porter, [1989]). There are various indicator to the multiple indica test and the list is in no means exhaustive the Fair Work Act 2009 and the Independent Contractors Act 2006 protect the entitlement and rights of independent contractors. It states that the difference between the independent contractor and an employee can be based on various factors. There is no one single factor which could determine if an individual is a contractor or an employee. Each case has to be looked into by the courts and the decision is to be given based totally on the relationship that exists between the parties. Some of them include intention of the party as to the relationship type, capacity to exercise or exercise of control over the manner of work and work performed, work undertaken for others or not if it is exclusive working, control over work hours, if there is a set of minimum and maximum hours, if tools and equipments are provided, if it is required for the employer to work in the business premises, if the employ ee is subject to be dismissed at the employers initiation and such other indicators (Waarden, 2010). In view of the above I agree to the fact that the central issue that has been highlighted by AIRC with respect to categorizing the relationships in a work environment and the fact that there still does not exist a practical and accepted legal test for distinguishing the employees is to a large extent true. Though Stevens v Brodribb Sawmilling Co Pty Ltd. introduced the principle of multi-factor test where there is analysis of the terms of contract of the party for indicating whether there was an independent contract or an employer employee relationship: income tax being deducted from the salary and set days and hours of work indicate that there is a relationship of employment, whereas the ability of delegation, the maintenance and provision of equipment, payment by way of task and there being no obligation mentioned clearly for being present for work indicate a relationship of independent contractor. These indicas are then weighed for obtaining the type of contracts overall impressio n. However these indicators can lead to different results as discussed and there can be contradicting views for the application of the test and how the relationship is to be determined (Wheelwright, 2003). In Australia it has been long accepted that even when there is express intention by the parties for creating an independent contract the courts will look beyond these contractual terms expressly mentioned for examining the relationships reality. The courts in doing so are applying the principle of equity which does not look into form but into substance. However as observed above in different cases though there different responses to the principle of multiple indica that is being observed by the Australian courts there is not yet a coherent body of law which would be able to clarify these broad principles that exist (Owens and Riley, 2017). This leads to contradicting views in the modern workplace relationship for defying relationships as independent contractors or employees. References Burnett, J. (2007). Avoiding Difficult Questions: Vicarious Liability and Independent Contractors in Sweeney v Boylan Nominees. Sydney Law Review, 162(129). Collins, H. (2010). Employment Law. 2nd ed. Oxford University Press. Creighton, B. and Stewart, A. (2016). Labour Law: An Introduction. 6th ed. Federation Press. Creighton, W., Stewart, A., Forsyth, A., Irving, M., Johnstone, R. and McCrystal, S. (2016). Creighton Stewart's labour law. 6th ed. Federation Press. Dennis-Escoffier, S. (2016). Employee or Independent Contractor. Journal of Corporate Accounting Finance, 27(3), pp.101-104. Hollis v Vabu [2001]207 CLR 21. Lawlor, L. and Willey, S. (2017). Are Your Workers Employees or Independent Contractors? Three Exercises to Help Students Accurately Classify Workers. Journal of Legal Studies Education, 34(2), pp.167-205. Owens, R. and Riley, J. (2017). The Law of Work. 2nd ed. Oxford. Performing Right Society Ltd v Mitchell and Booker (Palais de Danse) Ltd [1924]1 KB 762. Pittard, M., Naughton, R. and McCallum, R. (2003). Australian labour law. Australia: LexisNexis Butterworths. Price, R. and Neilsen, J. (2009). Employment law in principle. Sydney: Lawbook Co. Re Porter [1989]34IR 179. Riley, J. (2007). Employees or Contractors? Engaging Staff Following Work Choices, and in the Light of the Proposed Independent Contractors Legislation. SSRN Electronic Journal. Sammartino v Mayne Nickless [2000]98 IR 168 (at [46]). Sappideen, C., O'Grady, P., Riley, J. and Smith, B. (2016). Macken's law of employment. 8th ed. Lawbook Co. Stevens v Brodribb Sawmilling Co Pty Ltd (1986) [1986]160 CLR 16. Stewart, A. (2015). Stewart's guide to employment law. Annandale, N.S.W: Federation Press. Sweeney v Boylan Nominees Pty Ltd [2006]HCA 19. Waarden, N. (2010). Employment Law. 2nd ed. Lexis Nexis. Wheelwright, K. (2003). Labour law. Sydney: LexisNexis Butterworths

House On Mango Street Essays (267 words) - , Term Papers

House On Mango Street Close Reading Darius & the Clouds Page 33-34 In the chapter Darius & the Clouds Sandra Cineros uses descriptive language and metaphors to engage the reader in the story. In this chapter the general theme of freedom is also exhibited when the author talks about Darius and also talks about the sky. The sky in this chapter represents the theme of freedom. The sky is used as a metaphor to describe freedom and how there are no boundaries and there is no limit. You can also not have enough freedom and never get sick of having freedom. This is shown in the first paragraph where it says, ?You can never have too much sky. You can fall asleep and wake up drunk on sky, and sky can keep you safe when you are sad.? Another theme that is portrayed in this chapter is the theme of sadness and emptiness. Throughout the story all of the characters have something that they wish they had more of and for many of the characters, especially the women, what they want is freedom. This theme is used as a metaphor similar to how sky was used. It said, ?Here there is too much sadness and not enough sky. Butterflies too are few and so are flowers and most things that are beautiful.? This shows that all of the characters wish that they had a little more in their lives. Throughout this chapter Sandra Cisneros uses different metaphors and common themes to keep the reader interested. The sky witch represents freedom is one of these common themes that are used.

Criminal Behavior Conditioning Essays

Criminal Behavior Conditioning Essays Criminal Behavior Conditioning Essay Criminal Behavior Conditioning Essay Dr. Terrie Moffitt provides consent to the detection and early intervention concept for developmental/behavioral issues. Since 1993, Dr. Moffitt has focused on two youth types- both developmental in nature- that lead to delinquency. Dr. Moffitt defined these problematic individuals as either life-course-persistent (LCP) offenders, or adolescent-limited (AL) offenders. Where the AL offenders exhibit shorter cycles of delinquency that begin and usually end within his/her adolescent years, the LCP offenders begin at much earlier age and continues into the adolescent years. Researchers agreed with Dr. Moffitt that high-risk youth can be identified at an early age with great accuracy (Dodge Pettit, 2003; Hill, Lochman, Coie, Greenberg, 2004; Lochman Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group, 1995). But an important factor to note, is that they begin to parallel influence/cause during his/her adolescent years of delinquency. It is not enough to simply review statistics or parental accounts because it may confuse anyone trying to identify the two types of offenders (Moffitt, Caspi, Dickson, Silva, Stanton, 1996). Since Dr. Moffitt first standardized her developmental theory, she also brought forth the significance of many different but interwoven variables including: genetics, social pressure, observation, and parental nurturing (Moffitt et al, 1993, 1996; Moffitt, 1995, 2005). Another comparable theory also contends that younger offenders are at greater risk of more serious criminal offending (Gerald Patterson 1982, 1986). This (Coercion Developmental) theory cites parental involvement as major factor in psychosocial related delinquency. In addition, negative transitions or inconsistent monitoring of the child will contribute to the onset of delinquency (Brennan et al. , 2003; Patterson, 1982). A child may use temperamental actions to gain control. This behavioral pattern continues until the adolescent develops a consistent interpersonal approach of coercion. Whatever the root cause of delinquency, finality comes in the form of treatment or incarceration. However, more restraining measures for the serious offender- out-of-home treatment or incarceration- are not as effective and are extremely expensive (Henggeler, 1996). Indeed, data show that incarceration may not even serve a community protection function (Henggeler 1996, p. 139). † One theory is that prevention programs or treatment that only focuses on one risk factor â€Å"is unlikely to lead to long-lasting change in delinquency because multiple other forces act to support anti- social development (Dodge Pettit, 2003). † Alternately, selective pre vention (or incarceration) is designed to corral these â€Å"at risk† youth. The principle with selective prevention/incarceration is that ‘an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. The programs may range from family involvement to exterior intervention; regimented treatment to outdoor activities. However, it is important to begin the selective prevention/incarceration early in the child’s life and cross-examine multiple influential factors. Then, continue the same preventive measures to ensure new influences do not create new risks (Tremblay and Craig, 1995; Dodge Pettit, 2003). Dr Moffitt encourages programs designed at identifying the â€Å"at risk† youth before defining the subsequent delinquency. A similar theory involving multiple planes of identification is multi-systemic therapy (Henggeler Borduin, 1990; Henggeler, Melton, Smith, 1992; Scherer, Brondino, Henggeler, Melton, Hanley, 1994). When interpreting this therapy approach, multiple major factors come into play- school, family, counselors. Based on Dr. Moffitt’s developmental theories and mindset, I believe that she would have the same opinion of some researchers- utilize every social and genetic variable and create selective prevention/incarceration as a (best practice) approach to early detection of potential delinquency. In my freshman opinion, I feel that it requires a multitude of data to determine exact cause and effect. If you combine the following: National Crime Victimization Survey; broad-spectrum interviews of delinquents; Census interviews; marital patterns; religious or faith data; medical-intervention records; and psychosocial observation in the form of treatment, one may be able to create a better understanding in the patterns of delinquency. Unfortunately, research-to-date is small in comparison to the magnitude of influence. The relationship between parenting (disciplinary practice) and family (background) with delinquency is far too in-depth for a few hundred words to define. Parental styles, genetics, social interaction, socio-economic factors, religion, academic standards- the list goes on, and on- all factor into the potential to become an offender. Simply stated, exposure is the common denominator. While many factors can be a major, let us first address parental styles. There are four types of parental styles: authoritarian; permissive; authoritative; and neglecting (Diana Baumrind 1991a). While one parent chooses to control child’s life, another parent may be permissive and render no control. Even as a parent tries to be rational and reasonable, a different style is neglecting and detached from the child. Alone, no style is without imperfections. Other factors combine with the parenting style to create a more complex behavioral pattern. Coercive, easier methods of parenting require less administrative energy when compared with a style that emphasizes emotional interaction and patience. A pattern of too much corporal punishment to maintain control promotes a negative self-concept in the child or may carry the cycle of violence to another victim. Nonetheless, it is not easy to assume which styles provide more â€Å"at risk† factors than others without additional rationale. Parental practices that involve consistent interaction are additional strategies employed by some. A child may be pushed to achieve specific academic, social, or athletic goals across different contexts and situations (Hart, Nelson, Robinson, Olsen, McNeilly-Choque, 1998). A child may receive monetary gratuity designed to teach him/her to manage money. Some children thrive in other event-specific interaction- reading, attendance to sports or arts events, or giving time to school rooms and/or activities. Herein, lies factors that produce the advent of self-esteem and results may vary. Studies also reveal that observation has a responsive affect and often leads to social competence, peer acceptance, and less antisocial behavior (Hart et al. ,1998). An inviting parent that elevates care and affection or one that encourages higher educational are examples of styles hat promotes rather than demotes development. Secondly, a child’s socio-economic situation may hinder development into a non-offender. While the parent can deter negative behavior and reinforce positive outlook, the child may nevertheless fall prey to social environmental factors. Observation of deviant behaviors may possibly encourage the same. The nation’s economic crisis of 2009 resulted in many parents assuming second jobs- such as low-paying part-time work on weekends- to keep the family financially afloat (Bartol, 2008, 2011). This may necessitate â€Å"juggling† child care duties among day-care centers, relatives, babysitters, and neighbors. Likewise, caregiver styles and practices can escalate negative results. The early relationship between an infant and a caregiver largely determines the quality of social relationships later in life (Bowlby, 1969). Similar to the notion that â€Å"it takes a village to raise a child,† interaction with perceived models of authority and care can mold a child into positive results or into patterned delinquency. In addition, impoverished parents (or family), may create internal stresses and possibly abuse- both physical and mental. Further, the child’s development may digress into inadequate social, self-regulation, or temperament skill sets. Stress caused by poverty in urban settings is believed to diminish parents’ capacity for supportive and consistent parenting (Dodge, Greenberg, Malone, and Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group, 2008; Hammond Yung, 1994). If anti-social peers reject someone who is already struggling, then there may be a compounded risk factor. As Terrie Moffitt (2005) provided, we know certain risk factors are closely linked to delinquency and criminal behavior, but how or why they are linked is largely unknown. Thirdly, depending on the definition of â€Å"family,† the structure necessitates the parenting style. It is estimated that over 12 million American families with children are maintained by only one parent (U. S. Bureau of the Census, 2001). Early studies based on official data found that delinquents were more likely than non delinquents to come from homes where parents were divorced r separated (Eaton Polk, 1961; Glueck Glueck, 1950; Monahan, 1957; Rodman Grams, 1967). This led to conclusions that the single-parent home- or the â€Å"broken home† as it was called- could be blamed for much delinquency and thus could be considered a risk factor (Bartol, 2011). More recently, researchers examine associated factors such as the quality of the relationship, economic status, and levels of emotional suppo rt provided to the family by other modeling adults- extended family members or community agents. However, there is definitive results that single-parent homes that are conflict-free produce children from that are less likely to be delinquent than those shaped in highly conflicted, but â€Å"intact† homes (Gove Crutchfield, 1982). A family of different origin, has become a normal part of today’s society. Many researchers agree to also define a family as persons related by blood or by legal arrangements- adoptions, legal guardianships, civil unions. Researchers also point out that long-term committed relationships- either as friends or as sexual partners- are also considered as family. No matter the style of the living arrangement, blood-relative, or single-parent family, the structure becomes the focal point. As Flynn (1983, p. 13) asserts, â€Å"One point is indisputably clear in the literature: A stable, secure, and mutually supportive family is exceedingly important in delinquency prevention. † Parental alcoholism elevates risk for a variety of negative child outcomes, including behavioral difficulties, antisocial behavior, and subsequent alcoholism (Loukas, Zucker, Fitzgerald, Krull, 2003; Zucker et al. , 2000). Interestingly, Loukas and her colleagues (2003) found that the presence of paternal alcoholism in the family may be more important than maternal alcoholism in contributing to a son’s antisocial behavior and maladjustment. The aggressive behavior that is demonstrated in domestic violence is clearly a form of parental psychopathology. Lastly, related to parental styles is the parental supervision or monitoring of children. In parental monitoring, â€Å"refers to parents’ awareness of their child’s peer associates, free-time activities, and physical whereabouts, when outside the home† (Snyder Patterson, 1987, pp. 25–26). Just as a â€Å"structured† or â€Å"broken† home dictates, so too is the amount and quality of parental monitoring is influenced by a number of things- divorce, finances, job loss, parental psychological disorders, substance abuse, or death. Monitoring appears to be especially important from about age nine to mid-adoles cence, an observation that has received substantial support from several studies (Laird, Pettit, Bates, Dodge, 2003). Will a Substantially-Recruited High School Football Player Alter His Tackling Style By Observing His Favorite NFL Player Doing the Same? In recent months, the National Football League (NFL) has mandated various penalties to players for purposely making violent tackles on unsuspecting opposing players. The penalties were usually a monetary fine imposed; growing by each offense. However, the rash of career-ending and life-threatening injuries was not subsiding. In fact, Rodney Harrison, a former NFL player and NBC Analyst who was penalized for illegal hits at several points in his career was quoted, â€Å"that the NFL has to do more than fine offenders if it really wants to change the big-hitting culture.. Harrison further added, Ive had plenty of hits like this and fining me $5 or $10 grand really didnt affect me. But I got to a point where they suspended me and I knew the effect on my teammates, the disappointment of me not being out there; not the $100,000 that got taken away from me, but the fact that I wasnt out there. Thats what they are going to have to do if they want to change the nature of these hits. You hav e to suspend guys. † The NFL is currently utilizing other methods of penalty- suspension- as a method of deterrence. Will a substantially-recruited high school football player model himself and alter his tackling style by simply observing his favorite NFL player doing the same? If not, what if he met both the victim of a violent tackle and the offender? The independent variables are equally the favorite NFL players that give violent hits, and ones that received violent (and injury resultant) hits. The dependent variables are talented defensive players (decisions) about to leave high school and are being heavily recruited into college. Both Ordinal and Ratio data will be collected. To determine a level of persuasion, Ordinal data will be necessary (influenced more severe tackling, same/unchanged tackling; influenced less severe tackling); for both observation from afar, and actual/perceived interaction with victim and offender. Ratio data will be collected to determine the percentages of players that felt their respective play (influenced/uninfluenced) somehow altered their ability to be recruited. The hypothetical result is to segment how violence may be altered when measured through observation of others and through social interaction with participants. This may be able to translate how offenders may be able to recant their violent tendencies if a â€Å"role model† also recants. Operant conditioning is fundamental to some criminal behavior. It is present in all humans and probably less-focused as a pre-cursor to progressive criminal behavior. Do this, get response; do that, get a different response. Now, which response was â€Å"better or worse† in the offender’s opinion? And, if for the worse, how bad and is the offender prepared? Unfortunately, smaller crimes or even lawful activities can often lead to greater severity of deviant behavior. For instance, a male interprets the â€Å"mixed† sexual signals of a female during intercourse as â€Å"okay† this time. In fact, without knowing, is reinforcing the mixed signal by continually giving positive overall feedback without focusing on the things that are not okay. Then, the male continues this activity(s) to other partners until someone finally signals the behavior as improper or deviant. The reaction up to this point may not replicate the reaction in the instant- rejection. The eventual offender reacts in an emotional manner now considered criminal- an aggravated assault. Somewhere the operant conditioning has misaligned the offender to think that it was always â€Å"okay. † Now, it is not okay and the offender is not prepared for the response. On another angle, the victim is married to the offender. He/she has typically submitted to the behaviors and finally decides the behavior to be deviant. He/she has continually obliged due to conditioned reasons and pre-conceived consequences. Hopefully, the offender will see the reasoning, understand, and agree to dismiss harmful aggression. However, he/she may not and now operant conditioning is present for both sides. Sutherland’s (1939) position of differential association theory centers a neutrality of initial human behavior. The criminal tendency is learned through association with other, â€Å"bad company. † Likewise, good behavior can be attributed to the association with positive influences of other’s actions. Over the course of observation of others within a group, a subject is more likely to duplicate the consensus of behavior- good or bad. This is due, in part, to the conceived definition of what may be right or wrong because others are doing the same. While a valued approach, this theory did not break down the types of learning from other’s actions. By simply boiler-plating that all will do as the majority does, leaves many influences on the table. Differential Association-Reinforcement (DAR) theory gives greater detail into the interactions with others. In especially deviant behaviors, a subject would also need to observe other factors- strength, frequency, reinforcements (positive and negative) all packaged in a stimuli. In other words, a subject may run with a â€Å"bad company,† but if they receive other positive reinforcements for other aspects, then he/she is not pre-destined to become deviant. The physiological factors associated with aggression have great range- from genetics that some researchers parallel with animal instincts to cognitive reasoning for choosing how to deal with the aggression. The genetic and animal approach can easily be identified by observation of humans. Humans can be territorially aggressive in protection mode, as well as, in social matters. This trait is â€Å"built-in† through years of development and remains unchanged. I believe it may also be defined as impulsive- stimuli will invoke a reaction. However, humans have also developed a â€Å"knack† for deciding what is, or is not, appropriate behavior. Through social interaction and learned behaviors, humans as a whole can discern if aggression is necessary and to what level it should or should not be levied. Equally important is the ability to observe punishment and negative consequences in order to draw conclusion on appropriate (aggressive) behavior. Medicinal and medically-invasive measure may also be taken in order to subside aggressions. Later it was proposed (Zillmann, 1988) that arousal carries substantial weight in factoring situational aggression. These factors may include sexual, negative excitement, or other stimuli that combine to create an aggressive behavior. Pre-existing conditions can intertwine with real-time observations and carryout immediate aggression. Other recent researchers add that skill-sets and gender help determine the aggressor’s initial reaction. Once the arousal is recognized, the person may react with reflexive response and/or cognitively think before reacting. The research is varied when relying on simple factors such as, driving (road rage), video games, and peer rejection. Social observation (socialization) also factors into the potential aggressor’s reaction. Therein, I believe genders have an internal â€Å"triage† that quickly determines the most valuable return on behavioral investment. In addition, if aggression becomes favor with the person, he/she must then determine the types of overt aggression are pointed threats of bodily harm, physical assault, rape, murder, or road rage and can be linked to childhood tendencies of similar behaviors. Covert aggression is indirect and most often, unders of covert aggression are passive-aggressive exchanges, disguised theft or fraud, internet or electronic hassle. Social and aggressive behavior is managed largely through daily experiences by cognitive scripts. â€Å"A script suggests what events are to happen in the environment, how the person should behave in response to these events, and what the likely outcome of those behaviors would be†(Huesmann, 1988, p. 15). Scripts may be learned through direct experience or observing significant others (Bushman Anderson, 2001). Once learned and established, the script is usually adhered becomes resistant to change into adulthood. However, each script is different and unique to each person, and to become established must be practiced from time to time (Bartol, 2011) Furthermore, an important role in determining which scripts are stored in memory is the â€Å"evaluation of the appropriateness. † (Huesmann, 1988, p. 19). Conflicting scripts that intrude someone’s personal standards are unlikely to be stored or utilized. According to Blackman, chronic criminality can be understood as â€Å"an attempt to maintain status or mastery of a social environment from which they feel alienated† (1998, p. 174). The well-rehearsed cognitive script of persistent, lifelong offenders, therefore, is to dominate- often in a hostile manner- social environments they perceive as hostile. The other model has been developed by Kenneth Dodge and his colleagues (Dodge, 1986; Dodge Coie,1987), and is called the hostile attribution model. Insomuch, there is a bias because youth (and adults) prone toward violence are more likely to interpret unsuspecting actions as hostile and threatening than are their less aggressive counterparts (Dodge, 1993b). People described as having hostile attribution bias â€Å"tend to view the world through blood-red tinted glasses. † (Dill, Anderson, Anderson, Deuser, 1997). Children with a hostile attribution bias are much more likely than the average child to misinterpret actions from others as aggression (Hubbard et al. , 2001). Also, the bias is present in both boys and girls (Vitale, Newman, Serin, Bolt, 2005). Similarly, Serin and Preston (2001, p. 259) conclude, â€Å"Aggressive juvenile offenders have been found to be deficient in social problems of reactive aggression include: anger expressions; temper tantrums; and vengeful hostility- â€Å"hot-blooded† aggressive acts. Reactive aggression appears to be a reaction to frustration and is associated with a lack of control due to high states of arousal. In general, reactive aggression is a hostile act displayed in response to a perceived threat or provocation. However, proactive aggression includes: bullying; domination; teasing; name-calling; and coercive acts- more â€Å"cold-blooded† aggressive actions. (Dodge, et al. 1997). In difference, proactive aggression is less emotional, and hopeful of rewards. In theory, the basis of proactive aggression is found in social learning that is controlled and maintained by reinforcement.

Production and Growth Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Production and Growth - Essay Example On the other hand, explaining differences relating to growth and productivity among countries around the world required significant understanding of their determinants. It also important to note that, growth rates among different countries around the world are not constant; in fact, they are highly dynamic (Zhihua and Kai, 4). Moreover, countries that are considered poor are not destined to a state of poverty; for instance, countries such as Singapore had low incomes during 1960, but currently her incomes have significantly increased. Therefore, economic stability of a country is not taken for granted since; there are increased chances of being overtaken by other poorer countries that are growing more rapidly. FACTORS AFFECTING PRODUCTIVITY AND GROWTH GDP and income in a country increases due to workers’ productivity, thereby leading to increased living standards for the citizens. Productivity and growth rate in a given country is also facilitated by technological knowledge si nce it enhances the production process. Furthermore, in order to understand productivity and growth in a country, human capital is understood based on perspective through which people contribute to expansion of knowledge acquired in the field of production. Furthermore, there is need to understand policies, which influence determinants of growth in a country. Some of these growth determinants include international trade, health, nutrition, health, property rights and political instability and others; In fact, it is also vital to understand investment, savings and the policies that affect them. Output per unit labor is also one of the major determinants of living standards among citizens in a country. Therefore, the discussion in this paper focuses on comparing productivity in different countries depending on physical and human capital per worker, and natural resources. Moreover, evaluation of growth among different countries is based in technological advancement, which improves livi ng standards. INCOMES AND GROWTH AROUND THE WORLD Rates of growth among countries across the world are highly dynamic due to numerous underlying factors. Therefore, numerous changes occur over a period of time, whereby poor countries acquire chances of improving their productivity and growth to an extent of surpassing other countries. On the other hand, decisions made by various political actors in a given country can affect their growth negatively or positively; thus, leading to decline or increase of productivity. The graphs below show GDP per captial during 2009 and growth rate from 1970 up to 2009 for different countries in order to compare their growth and productivity rates. DETERMINANTS OF PRODUCTIVITY Physical Capital per worker (K/L) In any country, the physical capital refers to the tools and machinery used for production and infrastructure such as roads and ports, which facilitates mobilization of factors of production. In fact, physical capital is an attribute of growth and productivity in a given country since it is applied in production of output. However, there is a profound difference between physical capital and technology since it constrained, thereby being used by particular workers. In this case, productivity and growth is caused by substantial difference in physical capital between developed and developing countries. For instance, a survey conducted in 2000

Introduction to film studies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Introduction to film studies - Essay Example uelle Seinger is about a book dealer whose primary aim is to make money and who is hired by a wealthy book collector to track down a particular book called ‘The Ninth Gate’. The book dealer is also supposed to authenticate the book. Only one of the three copies of this book exists in the world and the wealthy collector is very keen on getting hold of this book, as he believes that this book will be able to conquer evil. The opening sequence of the film is very arresting and the focus shall be on that particular sequence while analyzing the mise en scene. The director begins the film by taking a wide shot of an old man shown sitting in a room and writing a note at his desk. Then the camera slowly moves towards a small chair focussing on it for about thirty seconds before panning straight to the top of the ceiling where a rope is shown hanging from a chandelier. While the camera is zooming on this sequence, the background music and the sound of a clock ticking away build up the suspense and makes the audience is filled with an ominous feeling that something terrible is going to happen. The director then skilfully cuts the camera from the rope on the chandelier to a medium shot of the old man where it stays on him showing him stopping his writing and then folding the sheet of paper. The atmosphere of suspense is reaching a crescendo as the camera again suddenly cuts from this shot to follow the old man’s legs while he is walking towards the chair. Because of the skilful placement of the camera and shot angles, the audience has already got an inkling of what’s going to happen but the music and the camera shots keep the suspense building till it reaches the man climbing onto the chair, putting his head through the rope and tightening it and then quickly pushing away the chair. As the chair falls down on the second try, the audien ce can see the man’s feet trembling and the sound of the broken neck along with the background score heightens the drama in the

Counterstereotype Essay Example for Free

Counterstereotype Essay Stereotypes are so prevalent in our everyday lives that people don’t even realize that they are making racist comments. They are so use to making these comments in their own inner circles, that they don’t even realize how detrimental they can be outside of their circle. Stereotypes affect people’s social lives, emotions, and how people interact with their environment. Stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination are known to be related but having different concepts. Stereotypes are regarded as the most cognitive component, prejudice as the affective and discrimination as the behavioural component of prejudicial reactions. That slight pause in the processing of a stereotype gives conscious, unprejudiced beliefs a chance to take over. With time, the tendency to prevent automatic stereotyping may itself become automatic. Past studies have shown that people perform poorly in situations where they feel they are being stereotyped. Are there lingering effects of prejudice? Does being stereotyped have an impact beyond the moment when stereotyping happens? Stereotypes have an enormous impact of how we feel. It affects people’s social lives, emotions, and how people interact with their environment. Regarding the quote, â€Å"If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not laugh? If you poison us, do we not die? And if you wrong us, shall we not revenge? From The Merchant of Venice by Shakespeare, even after a person leaves a situation where they faced negative stereotypes, the effects of coping with that situation remain. People are more likely to be aggressive after theyve faced prejudice in a given situation. They are more likely to exhibit a lack of self-control. They have trouble making good, rational decisions and are more likely to over-indulge on unhealthy foods. These days’ people are afraid to be themselves, because they fear other people. They don’t want people to think something bad for them. Secrets, thoughts, and ideas, are all held down. Stereotypes can be an obstacle as to how open you are with people and how you make people feel when you are with them. Instead of focusing on all the mistakes of each person, we should start paying more attention of how unique each person is. Stereotype causes people to feel lonely and even sometimes depressed. It’s also harmful for their environment and their social life. We should keep stereotypes out of the picture, even though sometimes we can be victims ourselves. The study of culture may someday tell us where the seeds of prejudice originated; for now, the study of the unconscious shows us just how deeply theyre planted.